Please join us on Wednesday, October 18th, 2023 for the Welcoming session organized by the department of English. Click the link below to join the meeting! All the details concerning the Online Licence FAD will be explained in this session.
Google Meet
Meeting link : https://meet.google.com/gcf-fjci-bbw
The module on Anglo-Saxon civilization and culture offers a comprehensive examination of the socio-cultural milieu that characterized early medieval England from the 5th to the 11th centuries. Integral to this exploration is an in-depth analysis of the Anglo-Saxon political structure, comprising the heptarchy and later unification under Alfred the Great, providing a nuanced understanding of the region's political evolution. The module delves into the intricate interplay between pagan and Christian beliefs, shedding light on the syncretic nature of Anglo-Saxon religious practices. Furthermore, it scrutinizes the impact of external forces, notably Viking invasions, on the socio-political fabric of the Anglo-Saxon society, contributing to a nuanced understanding of the period's complexities.
Moreover, the module critically engages with the literary and artistic expressions of the Anglo-Saxons, emphasizing the significance of iconic works such as "Beowulf" and the Exeter Book. Through this lens, students explore the intricate fusion of Germanic and Christian elements within the literary corpus, encapsulating the cultural dynamics of the time. Additionally, attention is directed towards the material culture, including intricate metalwork and illuminated manuscripts, fostering an appreciation for the craftsmanship that defined the era. In essence, the module encapsulates the multidimensional facets of Anglo-Saxon civilization and culture, inviting students to navigate the historical, religious, artistic, and social contours of this formative period in English history.
Please, open the document in order to check the planning of lectures during the first semester (2023-2024)
Pre-requisites:
Foundational Knowledge: A background in history, political science, or related disciplines is advantageous.
Historical Awareness: Familiarity with key historical periods, including the medieval, early modern, and modern eras, provides a contextual framework.
Political Systems: Basic understanding of political systems and governance structures, including constitutional principles, is beneficial.
Critical Analysis Skills: Proficiency in critical analysis and interpretation of historical and political texts is assumed.
Course-Specific Guidelines: Review any provided course guidelines or syllabi to ensure alignment with the prerequisites outlined by the instructor.
1.1 Introduction
A language sums up the civilization of a given people in any given country. To know a people is first of all to speak its language. Conversely, to learn a language is to learn about a people, about its history, its achievements, its struggles, its weaknesses, and its hopes.
1.2. Geography and Borders
The United Kingdom is an island country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. The United Kingdom forms an archipelago that comprises the whole of the island of Great Britain which contains England, Wales, and Scotland-as well as the northern portion of the island of Ireland. The name Britain is sometimes used to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole. Collectively, the group of islands is known as the British Isles.
The only land border of Britain is with the Irish Republic. The United Kingdom is surrounded by the sea like the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Irish Sea. The geography is mainly rocky hills and low mountains. At its broadest, the United Kingdom is 500 km across. From the northern tip of Scotland to the southern coast of England, it is about 1,000 km. No part is more than 120 km from the sea. The capital, London, is situated on the tidal River Thames in southeastern England.
The capital London is among the world’s leading commercial, financial, and cultural centers. Other major cities include Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester in England, Belfast and Londonderry in Northern Ireland, Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland, and Swansea and Cardiff in Wales.
1.3. Politics
The government is a constitutional monarchy and a commonwealth. The chief of the state is the queen and the head of the government is the prime minister. Politically speaking, there are two states in the British Isles. One of them is the Republic of Ireland which took its independence in 1922. Its capital is Dublin. The second state in the British Isles is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. This state governs the remaining isles (Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, England, and most of the smaller islands) and its capital is London.
1.4. Ethnicity and Religion
For centuries people have migrated to the British Isles from many parts of the world, some to avoid political or religious persecution, others to find a better way of life or to escape poverty. In historic times migrants from the European mainland joined the Celtic indigenous population of Britain during the Roman Empire and the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans. The Irish have long made homes in Great Britain.
Many Jews arrived in Britain toward the end of the 19th century and in the 1930s. Christianity with its diverse branches is the dominant religion in UK, 59 per cent. Nevertheless, other religions co-exist together in the country like Islam 4, 4 percent, Hindu 1, 3 percent, and others, like non-religious people exist in the UK.
1.5 Languages
Some earliest languages still survive in the two forms of Celtic: the first is Goidelic, from which Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic are derived. The second one is Brythonic, from which the old Cornish language and modern Welsh have developed. Among the contemporary Celtic languages, Welsh one is the strongest and still spoken in Wales. Modern English is derived mainly from the Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (whom all arrived in Britain in the 5th century AD.[1]) and heavily influenced by the language of the Danes (Vikings), who began raiding the British Isles about 790 and subsequently colonized parts of northern and eastern England.
[1] Anno Domini: Standardized under the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the system spread throughout Europe and the Christian world during the centuries that followed. AD stands for Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord”, while BC stands for “before Christ”.
Pre-requisites:
Basic Historical Knowledge: A foundational understanding of general historical concepts, including timelines and major historical periods, is helpful for contextualizing the earliest settlers of Britain.
Archaeological Awareness: Familiarity with basic archaeological methods and findings is beneficial for comprehending the evidence and artifacts associated with early British settlers.
Geographical Understanding: A basic knowledge of the geography of the British Isles contributes to a more nuanced understanding of settlement patterns and movements.
Anthropological Concepts: Some knowledge of anthropological concepts, such as migration patterns and cultural evolution, can enhance the appreciation of the diverse groups that settled in Britain.
Critical Thinking Skills: The ability to critically evaluate historical and archaeological evidence is essential for interpreting the complex narratives of the earliest settlers.
Interdisciplinary Perspective: Acknowledging the interdisciplinary nature of studying early settlements, an openness to integrating insights from history, archaeology, anthropology, and related fields is beneficial.
Course-Specific Requirements: Check for any specific prerequisites or recommendations provided by the instructor in the course syllabus or guidelines.
Lecture Two: The Earliest Settlers of Britain
1. The Iberians
The first settlers who came to settle England about 3000 or 2500 BC or during the Bronze Age, are called the Iberians. They are initially from the Iberian Peninsula (nowadays Spain and Portugal). Very little is known about them except some information extracted from archaeological research about their physical appearance; they were dark-haired and dark-skinned people. They were primitive and lived on hunting and later they learned to farm and used bronze to produce weapons. They raised animals and used them as a source of food and clothing and energy. They settled in the western part of Britain and Ireland. It is said that they raised Stonehenge which is known as a centre of religious worship. Other smaller Henges are found in different parts of the country
2. The Celts
From around 750 BC to 12 BC, the Celts were the most influential people in central and northern Europe. There were many groups (tribes) of Celts, speaking a vaguely common language. The word Celt comes from the Greek word, Keltoi, which means barbarians and is correctly pronounced as "Kelt".
No one called the people living in Britain during the Iron Age Celts until the eighteenth century. The Romans called these people Britons, not Celts. The name Celt is a 'modern' name and is used to collectively describe all the many tribes of people living during the Iron Age. The Iron Age Celts lived in Europe 750 years before Jesus was born. The Iron Age ended on AD43 (43 years after Jesus was born) when the Romans invaded Britain. The Celts are called Iron Age Celts.
2.1. The Celts Original Lands
The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age. Several hundred years before Julius Caesar, they occupied many parts of central and Western Europe, especially what are now Austria, Switzerland, southern France, and Spain. Over several years, wave after wave, they spread outwards, taking over France and Belgium and crossing to Britain. Northwest Europe was dominated by three main Celtic groups:
2.2. Written accounts
People visiting Britain wrote of their impressions of the people and the things they saw. Many of these reports are biased. Much of what Julius Caesar wrote about has since been proved wrong. First, we know that early Britons did sow (plant) corn. Their ancestors had been farming for hundreds of years. Second, they were not clad (dressed) in skins. The Bronze Age introduced sewing implements that made it possible to tailor clothing. Third, not every Britain covered themselves in woad. Diodorus Siculus (A Roman historian) provides a description that is quite realistic. He says:
They are very tall in stature, with rippling muscles under clear white
skin. Their hair is blond, but not naturally so: they bleach it, to this day,
artificially, washing it in lime and combing it back from their foreheads. They
look like wood demons, their hair thick and shaggy like a horse's mane. Some of
them are clean-shaven, but others - especially those of high rank - shave their
cheeks but leave a moustache that covers the whole mouth.
Diodorus Siculus (A Roman historian)
2.3. The Brythonic (British) Celts
Before the Romans arrived, Britain had of a patchwork of tribal areas, each with its king. Life was hard for the Celtic tribes. They were mainly farmers who grew, gathered, or hunted for their food. They were also fierce warriors who were often at war with each other.The small tribes of Brythonic Celts grew over the years into larger tribes with their distinctive identities and living in their special regions throughout Britain. Each tribe had its name and ruled by a chieftain/king or queen.
2.4. A Famous Celtic Queen
Warrior Queen Boudicca was the wife of the ruler of the Iceni, a Celtic tribe who lived in eastern England. After her husband's death, the Romans claimed the Iceni lands. When Boudicca protested, she was beaten and her daughters attacked. In revenge, Boudicca led an army to attack London in AD 60. Boudicca's army caused vast amounts of damage to the Roman legions before being defeated.
2.5. What clothes did the Celts wear?
The Celts loved bright dazzling colours. They dyed their woollen trousers and tops in bright colours. Their clothes were made from wool and dyed with natural vegetable dyes (plants and berries) and woven by hand on a vertical loom[1] (pictured below).
Jewellery: The Celts also loved to wear jewelry made from bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral, and enamel. Important people like chieftains, nobles, and warriors wore a Torc (neck ring), a circular twisted metal neckband. It was made from gold, silver, electrum (a gold-silver alloy), bronze, and copper.
Bracae (trousers): were worn underneath tunics.
Tunics: Tunics were mainly
worn by men. They were a simple 'T' shape and worn at any length from the knee
to the ankle. Men would wear a tunic with a belt, a cloak, and trousers.
Dresses: Women wore floor-length skirts or dresses made of wool or linen
and wore shawls or cloaks. They are capes or mantles called Bratt which were
made from wool.
2.6. What did the Celts eat?
There were no supermarkets or shops to buy food so the Celts ate what food they could grow or hunt. They ate Plants products like Vegetables, wild nuts, berries, grains to make bread and also porridge, herbs, and leaves They also lived on Animal and fish meat like :
Wild animals, e.g. deer, wild boar, fox, beaver, and bear.
Fish, e.g. trout, mackerel, and salmon.
Domesticated animals like chickens, goats, sheep, and pigs. They also consumed Eggs taken from hens and wild birds.
2.7. Celts Houses
The Celtic tribes lived in scattered villages. They lived in roundhouses with thatched roofs of straw or heather. The walls of their houses were made from local material. Houses in the south tended to be made from wattle (woven wood) and daub (straw and mud) as there was an ample supply of wood from the forests.
2.8. Celtic Beliefs
The Celts of Britain were very superstitious people. They believed in many gods and goddesses: over 400 in fact. Among them were:
Sucellos is the sky God, with a hammer that causes lightning.
Nodens is the God who made clouds and rain.
Many gods had no names but lived in springs, woods, and other places. Offerings to the gods were thrown into lakes, rivers and left by springs and wells.
- Celtic Priests
Celtic priests, called Druids, were the link between the supernatural world and the ordinary human one. They could to predict what would happen in the future by interpreting nature. They likely knew how to read and write, and they certainly had a good grasp of mathematics. They knew something of medicine and law, and they could trace the stars and the planets. The main centre of the druids in Britain was Anglesey, in Wales.
2.9. Celtic Weapons and Warriors
Many Celts went into battle unprotected by helmets or armour. They often fought naked and it is believed that women fought as well.
2.10. Celtic Invasion
Thanks to their use of iron and their developed techniques of farming, they imposed themselves on the Iberians. They came in successive waves and savagely killed and chased the Iberians and settled their lands by force. They brought with them their dialects and culture. In the end, they could mix and co-exist together and developed new dialects which some of them still exist like Erse, Gaelic, and welsh .the Celts did not trade with other people in Europe except their relative in the north of France who taught them to use coins instead of iron bars. They also helped them to push out the roman invasion of northern France. It is there where Julius Caesar saw for the first time the British Celts and decided to hold a military campaign to invade Britain later on.
3. The Romans
After Julius Caesar saw the Celts in the north of France where the Celts of Britain were fighting with the Celts of Gaul against the Romans, he decided to invade Britain. He made two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC. These two military expeditions were pushed down by fierce Celtic resistance and the Romans were forced to retreat. Yet, the actual successful Roman invasion was held by the emperor Claudius in 43 AD[2]. They came to colonize and exploit Britain by right of superior civilization. To fulfil their objective, they induced and subdued the Celts and assimilated the Latin language, culture, and roaming lifestyle. They encouraged the Celtic tribe chiefs to Romanize and Latinize them. These were the roman conditions to leave them live as chiefs. The name Britain comes from the Greco-Roman word “Pretani”, the Romans mispronounced the word and called the island “Britannia”.
3.2. Roman effects on Britain
- The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain
- The roman could not conquer “Caledonia” as they call her Scotland; they were pushed out by the Caledonian Picts who continued raiding over the Romanized cities and Celtic tribes. Finally, they built a protective wall to prevent them from causing damage to their cities. It was erected by the emperor Hadrian between 122-127 which later marked the frontiers between Scotland and Britain.
- The Romans built about twenty large towns and cities. Like Winchester, Chester, Lancaster, York, bath, London which became the greatest center of trade and government. These cities were decorated with villas and gardens and surrounded by forts for protection. In the roman manors or farms, they recruited workers to sow the crops and sold them in the markets. The workers were called the serfs.
- Besides, many popular baths were built which introduced a water culture to the British people.
- They connected towns with roads which continued to be used a long time after the roman departed from Britain.
- The roman introduced Christianity to the different parts of the British Isles and succeeded in Christianizing the Celts through the Christian missionaries and Saint Augustine.
3.3. The Roman Departure from Britain
The fall of the Roman Empire started in the second half of the 4th century AD. In Britain, it was precipitated by the Celtic resistance revival and the different raids over the Romans from both Ireland and Scotland. In the first half of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire could no more protect its subject in Britain and many other wars broke out in the different parts of the empire and they needed more legions to face them. Finally, they left Britain and the Romanized Celts unprotected; their withdrawal made another wave of conquerors came to invade Britain. These were the Anglo-Saxon.
[1] an apparatus or a machine used for making fabric by weaving yarn or thread. Yarn is spun thread used for knitting, weaving, or sewing
[2] AD stands for Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord”, while BC stands for “before Christ”.
Pre-requisites:
Historical Foundation: A solid understanding of general historical concepts and timelines is essential to contextualize the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain within broader historical developments. Knowledge of Roman Britain: Familiarity with the decline and withdrawal of the Roman Empire from Britain is crucial, as the Anglo-Saxon invasion occurred in the aftermath of Roman rule. Early Medieval European History: A basic grasp of the early medieval period in Europe, including events like the Migration Period, provides context for the movements of various Germanic tribes, including the Anglo-Saxons. Political Structures: Some knowledge of the political structures of pre-invasion Britain and the Anglo-Saxon social and political systems contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the period. Cultural and Religious Context: Understanding the cultural and religious dynamics of both the indigenous British population and the incoming Anglo-Saxons is important for appreciating the complexity of the invasion. Archaeological Awareness: Familiarity with archaeological evidence related to the Anglo-Saxon period aids in interpreting material culture and supporting historical narratives. Critical Thinking Skills: The ability to critically analyze historical sources and varying interpretations is crucial for navigating the complexities of the Anglo-Saxon invasion. Language and Literature (Optional): While not mandatory, familiarity with Old English language and literature, such as Beowulf, can provide additional insights into the cultural and literary aspects of the period. Course-Specific Requirements: Review any specific prerequisites or recommendations provided by the instructor in the course syllabus or guidelines. Lecture
three: The Anglo-Saxons invasion of Britain (410-1066AD) 1. Introduction The Anglo-Saxon period
in Britain spans approximately six centuries from 410-1066AD. The
period used to be known as the Dark Ages, mainly because written sources
for the early years of the Saxon invasion are scarce. However, most historians
now prefer the terms 'early middle ages' or 'early medieval
period'. The Anglo-Saxon period was a time of war, of the breaking up of
Roman Britannia into several separate kingdoms, of religious conversion, and,
after the 790s, of continual battles against a new set of invaders: the Vikings. 2. Anglo-Saxon Invasion
Historical Facts Anglo-Saxon mercenaries
had for many years fought in the Roman army in Britain, so they were not total
strangers to the island. Their invasions were slow and began even before the
Roman legions departed. When the Roman legions left Britain, the
Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began to arrive – at
first in small invading parties, but soon in increasing numbers. Initially,
they met little firm resistance from the relatively defenceless inhabitants of
Britannia. Around 500 AD, however, the invaders were resisted fiercely by the
Romano-British, who might have been led by King Arthur, if he existed –
and there is no hard evidence that he did. However, the monk Gildas,
writing in the mid-6th century, talks about a British Christian leader called
Ambrosius who rallied (grouped or assembled)
the Romano-British against the invaders and won twelve battles. Later
accounts call this leader Arthur. The Celtic areas of
Britain regarded the Saxons as enemies and foreigners on their borders: their
name became Sassenachs to the Scottish
and Saesneg to
the Welsh. The various Anglo-Saxon groups settled in different areas of the
country. They formed several kingdoms, often changing, and constantly at war
with one another. These kingdoms sometimes acknowledged one of their rulers as
a ‘High King'. By 650-850 AD, there were seven separate kingdoms called the
Heptarchy[1] which
are: 1. Kent,
settled by the Jutes. 2. Mercia,
whose best-known ruler. This large kingdom stretched over the Midlands. 3. Northumbria,
where the monk Bede (c. 670-735) 4. East
Anglia, made up of Angles. 5. Essex (East
Saxons). Here the famous Battle of Maldon was fought against the Vikings in
991. 6. Sussex:
the South Saxons settled here. 7. Wessex (West
Saxons), later the kingdom of King Alfred, the only English king ever to have
been called ‘the Great', and his equally impressive grandson, Athelstan, the
first who could truly call himself ‘King of the English'. By 850 AD the seven kingdoms had been consolidated into three large
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxons had
become a Christian people. 3.
The
Role of Alfred the Great in the Defense against External Enemies King Alfred, called
‘the Great' because he is the only king amongst the other Heptarchy’s king who
resisted the Vikings invasion and could maintain his kingdom Wessex and the
Anglo-Saxon presence in Britain. His achievement can be summarized as follows: After 793, when the Vikings raided Lindisfarne Monastery, the
history of the Anglo-Saxons became entangled (linked) with that of the Vikings. In
many ways they were similar: in language, religion, and Northern European
origins, yet they are not the same. 4. The Anglo-Saxon Cultural Facts 4.1.
Languages of the Anglo-Saxons
The Anglo-Saxons spoke the language we
now know as Old English, an ancestor of modern-day English. Its closest cousins
were other Germanic languages such
as Old Friesian, Old Norse, and Old High German. The surviving Anglo-Saxon
manuscripts from Anglo-Saxon England show the different dialects spoken in
different parts of the country, such as West Saxon, Northumbrian, and Mercian.
The oldest English poem, Cædmon’s Hymn, was composed in the
Northumbrian dialect of English. The old epic poem Beowulf is written in Old English. 4.2.
Houses and Daily Activities The Anglo-Saxons were
farmers and did not like the stone houses and streets left by the Romans, so
they built their villages. They looked for land with lots of natural resources
like food, water, and wood to build and heat their homes and practice
agriculture, and Britain’s forests had everything they needed. They surrounded
each village with a high fence to protect cattle from wild animals like foxes
and wolves, and to keep out their enemies, too. The Anglo-Saxon attacked the
villages and the monasteries and took all their properties. They disliked
everything related to the Romans. 4.3.
Food They grew wheat,
barley, and oats (cereals) for making bread and porridge, grew fruit and
vegetables like carrots and apples, and kept pigs, sheep, and cattle for meat,
wool, and milk. 4.4.
Cloths Anglo-Saxons made their
clothes out of natural materials. The men wore long-sleeved tunics (coats) made
of wool or linen, often decorated with a pattern. Their trousers were woollen
and held up by a leather belt from which they could hang their tools such as
knives and pouches (bags). Shoes were usually made out of leather and fastened
with laces. The women would wear an
under-dress of linen or wool and an outer dress like a pinafore called a
“peplos” held onto the underlayer by two brooches on the shoulders. Anglo-Saxon
women loved beaded necklaces, bracelets, and rings. 4.5.
Beliefs Many of today’s Christian traditions came from the
Anglo-Saxons, but they were not always Christians. When they first came over
from Europe they were Pagans, worshipping lots of different gods who they
believed looked different parts of their life, such as family, crop
growing, weather, and even war. The Anglo-Saxons would pray to the Pagan gods
to give them good health, a plentiful harvest, or success in battle. When the Pope of Rome sent over a missionary, led by a monk
called Augustine,
to England in 597AD, the Anglo-Saxons became Christians. Augustine convinced
the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelbert of Kent to
convert to Christianity and slowly the rest of the country followed him. Pagan
temples were turned into churches and
more churches (built of wood) started popping up all over Britain. Lecture
four: The Viking invasion of Britain (793-1066) 1.
Historical Facts on the Viking
The Viking Age in
Britain began about 1,200 years ago in the 9th Century AD and lasted for just
over 200 years. The Vikings first invaded Britain in AD 793 and lasted until
1066 when William the Conqueror became King of England after the Battle of Hastings. These bands of fierce
raiders began to attack the British coasts. They were also called the Danes
although they did not just come from Denmark. The Vikings came
from the three countries in Scandinavia (in Northern Europe) Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Vikings were also known as the
Norsemen. Norsemen means 'people from the North'. They were great travellers
and sailed to other parts of Europe, where they traded, raided, and often
settled. The Vikings came across
the North Sea, just as the Anglo-Saxons had done 400 years earlier. They drove
the Saxons out of part of the country and took it for themselves. King Alfred,
Saxon king of Wessex, fought them in a great battle, but he could not drive
them right away and had to let them have part of the country after signing a peace
treaty; the area they settled in is called Danelaw. The first place the
Vikings raided in Britain was the monastery at Lindisfarne, a small holy
island located off the northeast coast of England. This raid on Lindisfarne marks the start of the Viking migration from
Scandinavia in 793. Some of the monks were drowned in the sea, others
killed or taken away as slaves along with many treasures of the church. In the years that
followed, villages near the sea, monasteries, and even cities found themselves
dominated by these sea-based foreign intruders. Soon no region of the British
Isles (Britain and nearby islands) was safe from the Vikings. They attacked
villages and towns in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and England.
By 866, the Vikings had arrived in York. They made York (or Jorvik as they called
it) the second biggest city in the country after London. 2. Danelaw areas The areas the Vikings
settled in were known as Danelaw. It
covered an area roughly east of a line on a map joining London and Chester. The
Saxons lived south of the line, mainly in Wessex, governed by Alfred the Great The Vikings settled in: 3.
Cultural Facts on the Vikings 3.1.
Vikings Religion Like the type of
religion in ancient Greece or Rome, the Vikings worshipped
many different Gods and Goddesses. Their religion was an important part of
everyday life. The
three most important Viking Gods are: -
Odin is the leader of the gods. The god of
magic, poetry, and war. His wife was Frigg -
Thor (Tor in Scandinavian languages) was the
god of thunder. -
Freyr (or Frej in Swedish) is the god of agriculture
and fertility. 3.2. Norse Myths (Sagas) The Vikings told many
stories about gods, giants, trolls, and dragons. They were full of magic,
adventure, dishonesty, and trouble. They describe people living in Midgard (Middle Earth) and gods
and goddesses living in a sky world called Asgard. A beautiful rainbow bridge linked Midgard with Asgard. 3.3.
Viking Houses and Food Vikings lived in a long, narrow
building called a
longhouse. They were built of
wood. The longhouses had curved walls in the plan, forming a ship-like outline.
The walls were lined
with clay or consisted of wooden planks. The Vikings were also
farmers and people of agriculture. Therefore, they ate fruits, vegetables, and
cereals for bread and kept animals for meat, milk, cheese, and eggs. They had plenty of fish as they were
sea-fairer and hunters. The bread was made using quern stones, stone tools for
hand-grinding grain. 3.4.
Vikings Cloths Viking clothes were made from wool, linen, and
animal skins. The Vikings were skilful weavers and made their clothes. Women,
with the help of children, made the wool into yarn (thread) and used natural
dyes from plants to give it colour. Men wore tunics and trousers and
women wore a long dress with a pinafore over it 3.5. Vikings
Timeline The Vikings came to Britain in two waves the
first wave in 793 and the second one in 980. 793 The first invasion by the Vikings. They raided monasteries on the coast,
including Lindisfarne, 794 First raids on Scotland and Ireland. 820 Viking raids continued around the English coast 821 Wessex, reigned by Alfred the Great became the Supreme Kingdom 865 Great Viking Army from Denmark Invaded England 866 Danes captured York (which the Vikings called Jorvik) and make it their
kingdom (land ruled by a king) 871 King Ethelred, the West Saxon king, and his brother Alfred defeated the
Viking army at the Battle of Ashdown (in Berkshire). 876 Vikings from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden settled permanently in England. 886 King Alfred the Great defeated the Vikings but allows them to settle in
Eastern England (the Kingdoms of York and East Anglia) This area of England
became known as Danelaw and was ruled by the Viking King Guthrum. 901-937 Eastern England (Danelaw) was conquered by the English 950 Vikings from Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Hebrides raided on Wales,
particularly the coastal monasteries. 954 Eric Bloodaxe, the last Viking King of Jorvik, was thrown out of York. 980 New Viking Raided on England 994 Olaf of Norway and Sven 'Forkbeard', son of the Danish king, led an
invading Danish army in an unsuccessful siege of London and subsequently
ravaged the south-east. 1014 King Canute (Cnut) of Denmark captured the English Crown (became king) 1042 Edward the Confessor became King (A Saxon King)
Thor had iron gloves, a magic belt, and a hammer. He was also the god of
protection. He protected them from cold, hunger, giants, and other dangers.
Frey was worshipped regularly all throughout the year for future prosperity. He
was the twin of Freyja (goddess of love and fertility). Freyja wept golden
tears when she was unhappy.
Pre-requisites
Understanding of Anglo-Saxon England: A foundational knowledge of the political, social, and cultural context of Anglo-Saxon England before 1066 is crucial for comprehending the impact and significance of the Norman Invasion.
Battle of Hastings: Familiarity with the key events and outcomes of the Battle of Hastings in 1066 is essential, as this battle marked a pivotal moment in the Norman Conquest of England.
Feudal System: An understanding of the feudal system, including its structures and dynamics, is beneficial for grasping the changes introduced by the Normans in the post-invasion period.
Norman Political and Social Structures: Knowledge of Norman political and social systems, including the role of William the Conqueror and the establishment of Norman rule, is crucial for understanding the aftermath of the invasion.
Impact on English Society: Insight into the transformation of English society, governance, and culture following the Norman Invasion is important for a comprehensive view of the historical consequences.
Anglo-Norman Relations: Awareness of the dynamics between the Normans and the existing Anglo-Saxon population, as well as subsequent interactions, aids in understanding the complexities of post-invasion England.
Archaeological and Architectural Aspects: Some familiarity with archaeological and architectural evidence related to the Norman period in England enhances the appreciation of material culture and changes in the landscape.
Critical Thinking Skills: The ability to critically evaluate historical sources, perspectives, and interpretations is crucial for a nuanced understanding of the Norman Invasion and its repercussions.
Language and Literature (Optional): While not mandatory, some exposure to medieval Norman-French language and literature can offer additional insights into the cultural and linguistic transformations during this period.
Course-Specific Requirements: Check for any specific prerequisites or recommendations provided by the instructor in the course syllabus or guidelines.
Lecture 04: The Norman Invasion of Britain 1066
1. Normans Origin
To understand who the Normans were, we have to go back a little to 911. This year, a rather powerful Viking chief called Rollo attacked the north of France after some battles and negotiations with French authorities, he accepted the offer of a large area of Northern France from the then king of France, Charles II, as part of a peace treaty.
Rollo and his Norsemen settled in this area of northern France, now known as Normandy. Rollo became the first Duke of Normandy and over the next hundred years, the Normans adopted the French language and culture and lived in harmony with the French people.
2. Historical Facts on The Norman Invasion
On 5th January 1066, Edward the Confessor, King of England, died. The next day the Anglo-Saxon Witan (a council of high-ranking men) elected Harold Godwin, Earl of Essex (and Edward’s brother-in-law) to succeed him. The crown had scarcely been put on his head when King Harold’s problems started with other opponents over the British crown.
In Normandy, Duke William did not agree with the voting of the Witan. William claimed that years earlier, Edward had promised the crown of England to him. Besides, he believed that he had strengthened his claim further when in 1063, he made Harold swear to support his claim to the English throne. He was very annoyed because he felt that Harold Godwin betrayed him. Therefore, William prepared to invade and conquer Britain.
King Harold Godwin also had problems in the north of England – sibling rivalry. Harold’s brother Tostig had joined forces with Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, and had landed with an army in Yorkshire. Harold Godwin marched his English army north from London to drive back the invaders. Arriving at Tadcaster on 24th September, he seized the opportunity to catch the enemy off guard. His army was exhausted after the forced march from London, but after a bitter, bloody battle to capture the bridge at Stamford, Harold won a decisive victory on 25th September. Harold Hardrada and Tostig were both killed.
On October 1st Harold Godwin and his tired army marched three hundred kilometres south to fight Duke William of Normandy, who had landed at Pevensey, East Sussex on the 28th of September. Harold’s sick, exhausted Saxon army met William’s fresh, rested Norman troops, on October 14th at Battle near Hastings, and the great battle began. At first, Harold's army was victorious over the Normans, but slowly, the Normans began to gain control. King Harold was struck in the eye by a Norman arrow and was killed, but the battle continued until all of Harold’s loyal bodyguards were slain (killed).
Although William of Normandy had won the Battle of Hastings, it would take a few weeks longer to convince the good folk of London to hand over the keys of the city to him. Anglo-Saxon resistance blocked the Norman advance at the Battle of Southwark. This battle was for control of London Bridge, which crossed the River Thames allowing the Normans easy access to the English capital of London. Thus, the Norman troops were forced to find access to London from Wallingford in December 1066, where he was crowned king of England by Archbishop Ealdred, and he was called William the first.
3. The Norman Conquest Impact on Britain
The consequences of the Norman Conquest were many and varied. Further, some effects were much longer-lasting than others. It is also true that society in England was already developing along its path of history before William the Conqueror arrived yet; the momentous political, social, and economic changes of the Middle Ages had their roots in the Norman invasion. The following list summarizes what most historians agree on as some of the most significant changes the Norman Conquest brought to England:
4. Feudal System Or Feudalism In Britain
The feudal system was a way of organizing society into different groups based on their roles. It had the king at the top with all of the control, and the peasants at the bottom doing all of the work. All medieval people did homage, a promise to be loyal, to their 'lord' and there were no rules or restrictions on the power of the king. He was the absolute ruler and owner of everything in the country. Under the feudal system, the British society was organized in a peculiar hierarchy as follows: monarchs (the king, queen), barons or lords (landowners and nobles), knights (army), and peasants (serfs).
After his conquest of Britain, by 1085, William had a shortage of money and needed to raise taxes, to pay for his army. Also, many Norman Barons had begun to disagree amongst themselves over the land they had been given as a reward for helping conquer England. William wanted to settle these disputes once and for all. Thus, he decided to order a survey. Therefore, he created the Domesday Book (1085). He sent official inspectors and agents all over England to assess and value the wealth of the land and who owned it. Through this survey, he recorded every property in England.
The Domesday Book shows how Normans came to dominate the country and how less than 250 Normans controlled the whole country. William granted most of the land to Normans and only a few Anglo-Saxon lords who owned lands during the time of Edward the Confessor were able to keep their land.
Pre-requisites:
Medieval European History: A foundational understanding of medieval European history, including major political, social, and economic developments, provides essential context for comprehending the troubles faced by England in the late Middle Ages.
Hundred Years' War: Familiarity with the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) is crucial, as this conflict significantly impacted England and influenced its internal and external challenges during the late medieval period.
Wars of the Roses: Knowledge of the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487), a series of civil wars for the English throne, is essential for understanding the internal conflicts and political instability that characterized late medieval England.
Feudal System and Social Structures: An understanding of the feudal system, social hierarchies, and class structures in medieval England is important for examining the societal challenges faced during this period.
Plague and Famine: Awareness of the impact of events such as the Black Death (1347-1351) and subsequent plagues, as well as periods of famine, contributes to an understanding of the demographic and economic challenges.
Political Structures: Knowledge of the political institutions and structures of late medieval England, including the monarchy, Parliament, and regional governance, is essential for analyzing the political troubles of the era.
Cultural and Religious Context: Insight into the cultural and religious dynamics of late medieval England, including the influence of the Church and cultural shifts, enhances the appreciation of the challenges faced by the society.
Economic Transformations: Familiarity with economic changes, including the decline of feudalism, the rise of trade, and the impact on rural and urban life, provides context for understanding the economic troubles of the late Middle Ages.
Critical Thinking Skills: The ability to critically evaluate historical sources, perspectives, and interpretations is crucial for a nuanced understanding of the troubles faced by England in the late Middle Ages.
Course-Specific Requirements: Check for any specific prerequisites or recommendations provided by the instructor in the course syllabus or guidelines.
Lecture 05: Troubles of England in the Late Middle Ages (1337-1485)
1. The Hundred Years’ War 1337-1453
In 1328, the French king Charles IV died without any son to succeed him. This was during the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) who claimed the throne of France, for his mother, Isabella of France, who was too the French king’s sister. Yet, the French nobles rejected having an English king and crowned a cousin of the dead king. With the new French king, the French nobles attacked Aquitaine in the southwest of France, which had already been ruled by Edward III. In 1337 king Edward declared war on France.
The hundred years’ war began with victory for the English. The French fleet was destroyed at Sluys (Flanders) in 1340. Then, after a short truce, the French cavalry was dispersed by the English archers at Crecy (Flanders) in 1346.
In 1349 the Black Death hit England and killed half of the population, that is to say, from 2 to 2.5 million souls. Yet, the war continued and in 1356, the English defeated the French at the battle of Poitiers. Then in 1360, Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne and the French ceded the southwest of France to England. War broke out again later and more battles were fought. However, inspired by Joan of Arc, the French took the offensive and drove the English out of France in 1453. Two years later, the civil war broke out in England between the house of Lancaster and the house of York (1455-1485).
2. Black Death 1349
This epidemic plague known as the Black Death in England came from china to Europe and North Africa. It carried away from 2 to 2.5 million of the English population. One of its serious consequences was the big reduction of cultivated lands due to the deaths of thousands of peasants (serfs). This ruined landowners, who were compelled to give farmers high wages. So, by the end of the 14th century, peasants and artisans got high wages and grain prices.
3. Peasants’ Revolt 1381
In 1381 the peasants, artisans, and the poor of the south and east of England revolted and marched to London under the leadership of Wat Tylor. This revolt was caused by the high taxes, which King Richard II imposed on the English people. It was also inspired by Lollardism, a new religious movement that called for equality. One of the Lollards, John Wycliffe (1320-1384), translated the Bible into English and became available to the masses. This was also the age of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), who wrote the first great literary work in English: Canterbury Tales (1387).
The poll tax of 1381 was probably the direct cause of the revolt. King Richard II met the rebels outside London and promised them cheap land, free trade, and the abolition of serfdom. However, a month later, in June the soldiers crushed them and the royal promises were forgotten.
4. Wars of the Roses 1455-1485
During the 15th century, the throne of England was claimed by the representatives of two rival groups; the Lancastrians, whose symbol was a red rose, supported the Duke of Lancaster, and the Yorkists, whose symbol was a white rose, supported the descendants of the Duke of York. This led to the war between 1455 and 1485. They ended when Henry Tudor (a Lancastrian from Wales) defeated and killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He became King Henry VII. His reign witnessed strong government and stability, welcomed by the people weakened and impoverished by the long war.
Thus, the house of Plantagenet came to an end, because Richard III was the last king of that house. With Henry VII, the Tudor house started to rule England. The Tudors’ reign lasted from 1485 to 1603. Their monarchs were: Henry VII, Henry VIII, queen Mary Tudor I, and finally Elizabeth I.