CONJUNCTIONS

( LECTURE)

(by Dr. HEMCHE Hidaya Amina and Dr. HAKEM Hadia)

1. Definition

Conjunctions are one type of linking words. A conjunction is a part of speech that joins or connects two elements together (i.e. words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs).

2. Types of Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions:

 2.1. Coordinating Conjunctions

 Also called coordinators, are the simplest kind of conjunctions and all have fewer than four letters. These are used to join parts of a sentence (items) that are grammatically equal and similar in importance and structure:      

                                                                   +

                                           word                   to                    word     

phrase                to                    phrase         

clause                 to                    clause     

• Word to word:          Most children like [cookies] and [suits].     
• Phrase to phrase:      Do you like camping [at the beach] or [by the lakeside]?         
• Clause to clause:      [The train came late] and [I was tired].

Coordinating conjunctions are: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet and So. Generally, the acronym FANBOYS is used to remember them; based on their initials spell.

N.B.: Coordinators always occur between the items they join, neither at the beginning nor at the end of the sentence.

·         Correct: I like coffee, but I hate tea.

·         Incorrect: But I hate tea, I like coffee.

2.1.1. Punctuation with Coordinating Conjunctions

A-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases or subordinate clauses, there is no need to put a comma before the conjunction.

• Words: Jack and Jill went up the hill.
• Phrases: You can sit next to me or behind Tom.
• Subordinate clauses: The water was cold but I went swimming.

                                   She is kind so she helps.

B-    When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction.

·        I want to become a journalist in the future, so I am specialising in translation from French to English.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well balanced, there is no need to put a comma.

·        She failed so she is sad.

C-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two or more items, this creates a series and a comma is, then, required between the two first elements and optional before the conjunction.

Examples:

·        Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

Or

·         Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing and reading comprehension.

D-    A comma is also used with but, when expressing contrast.

·        This rule is useful, but difficult to understand.

  2.1.2. Use of coordinating Conjunctions

a. For

The word for is most of the time used as a preposition. However, it also functions; on more rare occasions; as a coordinating conjunction. The coordinator for is used to introduce a reason for the preceding clause.

·         The baby is sleeping for he has been crying all night long.

b. And

As a conjunction, and is used in the following cases:

1-     To show that one action is chronologically sequential to another (i.e.to express a chronological sequence of actions).

·         She sent in her application for the job and is still waiting for an answer.

2-     To show that one action is the result of another.

·         They invested money in the company right at the start and this brought them success.

3-      To show that one idea is in contrast to another (usually, and may be replaced by but in this usage).

·         By the end of the day, we were tired and happy.

·         By the end of the day, we were tired but happy.

4-      To suggest an element of surprise. In this case, and is often replaced by yet;

·         It is a small car, and it is surprisingly spacious.

·         It is a small car, yet it is surprisingly spacious. 

5-     To show that one clause is dependent upon another. Usually in this case, the first clause is an imperative.

·         Miss another class and you will fail.

6-     To give a kind of comment on the first clause.

·         Mark became addicted to drugs- and that was a surprise for no one.

c.  Nor

The conjunction nor is not often met as the other conjunctions, especially when used alone. Nevertheless, nor is usually used in conversation or writing with other negative expressions to express a non- contrasting negative idea.

·         He wasn’t there on Monday, nor on Tuesday for the meeting.

     d.  But

1-      But is used to suggest a contrast that is unexpected to occur in light of the first clause.

·         A terrible accident occurred between two buses, but no one was injured.

2-      But is also used to link two ideas in the meaning of “with the exception of”. In this case, the second word plays the role of subject.

·         All the employees but Mr. Wilson went on a strike.

e.  Or

1-      Or is used to suggest that only one possibility can be realised, excluding one or the other.

·         You must study hard or you will fail.

2-     To introduce a combination of alternatives.

·         Do you prefer meat or fish for dinner?

3-     To suggest a restatement or correction of the first part of the sentence.

·         Jack masters height languages, or so he pretends.

f.  So

1-      As a conjunction, so is used to express the result or consequence of an action.

·         It was still painful so I went to the doctor again.

2-      So can also be used to express sameness or addition.

·         Soto is not the only Olympic athlete of his family, so are his brother, sister and uncle.

3-      Sometimes, so occurs at the beginning of a sentence to act as a summing device or transition. In this case, it is often separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

·         So, the police arrived and intervened rapidly.

g. Yet

The word yet functions as a coordinating conjunction with the meaning of nevertheless or but.

·         He is brilliant, yet he didn’t pass the exam.

2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions

   Subordinating conjunctions; also called subordinators; are found only in     complex sentences and used to join two clauses together: the main (or   independent) clause to the subordinate (or dependent) one.

The idea in the main clause is the most important one while that of the subordinate clause is less important as illustrated below:

      Independent Clause          Subordinating Conjunction        Dependent Clause

    Frank went swimming                  although                       it was raining. 

    2.2.1. Remarks

ü  Notice that the independent clause can stand alone as it carries the main idea of the sentence, whereas the subordinate clause cannot as it depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. Besides, it supplies a time, reason, condition; and so on; for the main clause.

ü  A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause, as it introduces it.

·         The snowman melted       because           the sun came out.

                                                        Subordinator       Subordinate Clause

ü  The subordinate clause can occur after or before the main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

A-     Structure One:  Main Clause   +  Subordinate Clause

·        All is lost unless we act now.

B-     Structure Two:  Subordinate Clause  +  Main Clause

·         After the rain stopped, the dog run into the mud to play.

    2.2.2. Punctuation Note

When the independent clause precedes the dependent one in a sentence, no comma is needed to separate the two clauses. However, if the dependent clause is placed first, a comma is required between the two clauses.

The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are summarised in the table below; some of which may also be used as prepositions.

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Course summary

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