Avant le XXème siècle, la linguistique en tant que telle n’existait pas. Le langage a d’abord été étudié dans le cadre de la description de l’histoire de la littérature, puis suite à la découverte du sanskrit, le langage est devenu un objet d’observation chez les grammairiens comparatistes, qui faisaient des études comparatives entre le sanskrit et le latin ou le grec. À cette époque, le centre de préoccupation était le problème de l’origine du langage.

Ensuite, est apparue l’école des néogrammairiens, qualifiés parfois de précurseurs de la linguistique : ils s’intéressaient avant tout aux phénomènes phonétiques. Dans ce contexte, et avec les travaux de Saussure, l’étude du langage a acquis le statut de science. Saussure est le fondateur du structuralisme en linguistique, et il est considéré généralement comme le père de la linguistique. La linguistique est une discipline scientifique s’intéressant à l’étude du langage. Elle se distingue de la grammaire, dans la mesure où elle n'est pas prescriptive mais descriptive. La prescription correspond à la norme, c'est-à-dire ce qui est jugé correct linguistiquement par les grammairiens. À l'inverse, la linguistique descriptive des linguistes se contente de décrire la langue telle qu'elle est et non telle qu'elle devrait être.

Ce cours porte sur l’introduction à la linguistique générale. Nous allons d’abord présenter sommairement l’histoire de l’apparition de la linguistique avant d’aborder le phénomène langagier et les théories sur son apparition.  Le cours continuera par  l’étude de l’ensemble des notions élémentaires de la linguistique, introduites par Saussure, ainsi que les plus déterminantes contributions d’imminents linguistes tels que Bloomfield, Chomsky, et Sapir. Il se poursuivra par l’étude des différents niveaux d’organisation de la langue et des unités de chaque niveau, pour se terminer par la présentation de la procédure d’identification de ces unités par le schéma de commutation de Jacobson.

Ce cours s'adresse aux étudiants de premières année Anglais Langue Étrangère (English as a Foreign Language). La compétence visée par ce cours, dans son ensemble, est « de mener l’apprenant à une réflexion rigoureuse sur la nature du langage et le fonctionnement de la langue. » C’est une compétence complexe que vous allez construire progressivement en maîtrisant des savoirs, en mettant en œuvre les compétences pré-requises et nouvellement acquises, aussi en adoptant une attitude qui appuie l'autonomie des apprenants et qui développe son esprit scientifique et sa pensée critique.  

L’analyse du discours est un domaine des sciences du langage qui étudie le langage en contexte, c’est-à-dire la manière dont les énoncés prennent sens dans une situation sociale, historique et interactionnelle donnée. Elle dépasse l’étude de la phrase isolée pour s’intéresser aux conditions de production et d’interprétation des discours.

Plusieurs courants théoriques ont contribué à son développement. L’approche distributionnelle analyse les relations entre les éléments linguistiques à partir de leur distribution dans le texte. L’approche énonciative met l’accent sur la présence du locuteur dans le discours à travers les marques d’énonciation (pronoms, déictiques, modalisation). L’approche pragmatique s’intéresse aux intentions communicatives et aux effets produits sur le destinataire. Enfin, l’approche sociodiscursive ou critique examine les relations entre discours, idéologie et société.

L’analyse du discours mobilise également plusieurs concepts fondamentaux, tels que l’énonciation, le contexte, la cohérence et la cohésion textuelle, l’interdiscours, la polyphonie, ainsi que les stratégies discursives. Ces notions permettent de comprendre comment les discours construisent des représentations, véhiculent des valeurs et participent à la structuration des relations sociales.

Ainsi, l’analyse du discours constitue un outil essentiel pour comprendre le fonctionnement du langage dans la société, en mettant en lumière les liens étroits entre langue, pensée et pratiques sociales.

OBJECTIFS GENERAUX DE LA MATIERE D’ENSEIGNEMENT
Le programme de la troisième année vise l’approfondissement des outils et méthodes de

1. Notion de base de données
2. Architecture et rôle des Systèmes de Gestion de Bases de Données (SGBD)
3. Modèle de données et typologie des SGBD
4. Cycle de développement d'une BDD
5. « Métiers » du domaine
6. Chronologie de son évolution
7. Objectifs et structure du module

Ce  cours  est  destiné  pour  les  étudiants  de  Master 1,  spécialité Biomathématique. Il contient les notions fondamentales de théorie des testes  statistiques  classiques  dans  un  premier  chapitre.  Nous  détaillons  dans  le  chapitre  2  les  modèles  linéaires  simples  et complexes.  Le  chapitre  3  concerne  les  écarts  aux  hypothèses  des modèles  :  normalité,  indépendance  et  homocédasticité.  Le dernier  chapitre contient les tables statistiques des lois usuelles. Des travaux dirigés accompagnent ce cours pour concrétiser les notions théoriques appris au fils des 4 chapitres. Des travaux pratiques vont ainsi permettre aux étudiants une application en utilisant le logiciel R et un traitement statistique des données réelles sous ce logiciel.

Cette matière est consacrée pour la démonstration la description des techniques

expérimentales utilisées pour les caractérisations spectrales, thermiques et photochimiques

des différents polymères synthétisés et modifiés dans le laboratoire au cours de la formation

de master. Nous donnons aussi les techniques utilisées lors de l’application des copolymères

dans le domaine de traitement des eaux usée par coagulation-floculation, notamment dans le

but d’éliminer la turbidité, les colorants industriels et les métaux lourds.

• Public cible : Étudiants de Master 1option : Chimie Macromoléculaire

• Objectifs : A l'issue de ce cours, l'étudiant sera capable de :

- Identifier les différents polymères synthétisés dans le laboratoire.

- Différencier entre les techniques utilisées dans l'analyse qualitative et quantitative des polymères.

- Adapter les propriétés physico-chimiques des polymères aux applications désirées.

- Appliquer les matériaux polymères en traitement des eaux

• Responsables du matière :

CONDITIONALS

(by Dr. HAKEM Hadia and Dr. HEMCHE Hidaya Amina)

Conditional sentences are made up of two clauses presenting an event. The if- clause expresses the condition for the event in the main clause. In real conditionals, the events are realizable (happen, have happened or are likely to happen) whereas in unreal conditionals, the events are unrealizable (have not happened, are not likely to happen or are imaginary).

1.      Form

A conditional sentence is made up of an if-clause expressing the condition for a main (or result) clause.

·        If he works hard, he^’ll pass the examination.

·        If I found a wallet in the street, I would take it to the police.

It makes no difference if the clauses are reversed:

·        He’ll pass the examination if he works hard.

·        I would have come to see you if I had known you were ill.

But in the question form, in formal English, the main clause is always placed first:

·        Will he pass the examination if he works hard?

·        Would you take a wallet to the police if you found it in the street?

‘Then’ is sometimes put before the main clause to emphasize the fact that the main clause is the result of the if-clause.

·        If the keys are not hung at the entrance, then dad must have taken them.

2.     Uses of Conditionals

   2.1. Real Conditionals

2.1.1.      Factual Conditional (Type 0)

1-     It is also called zero conditional. It is used to express a fixed connection existing between two events now and always    (If    present tense   ,  present tense). Thus, to talk about:

a.       General truth and scientific facts.

·        If air expands, it becomes lighter.

·        If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.

·

        If it is midday in Algeria, it is 2 p.m. in Mecca.

b.      Habits and recurring events.

·        If I come first, I do the cleaning at home.

·        If Jane travels, she orders a special meal.

2-     It is also used to express a fixed connection that existed between events in the past                                                             (If     past tense   ,   past tense)

·        If she had a new toy, she was quiet.    

·        If it rained, we went by bus.

3-     The imperative is used in the main clause to make an invitation or to give an instruction or a command that depends on a certain condition.

·        If you come to the countryside, stay with us.

·        If you want to switch on the computer, press this button.

·        If the seat belt light is on, don’t leave your seat.

*Note that only in factual conditional that  if  can be replaced by when since they can have a similar meaning.

2.1.2.      Predictive Conditional (Type 1)

It is also called first conditional. It is used to express a likely connection between one event                   (if    present tense) and another possible event  (will), i.e. there’s a real possibility for events to happen. 

·        If he doesn’t work hard, he won’t pass the examination.

 (There is possibility to fail if he doesn’t work hard)

·        The builders will complete the new school on time if they don^’t go on strike.

·        If he is working, I won’t disturb him.

·        If you have all finished, I’ll collect the papers.

Variations of Type 1

1-     The most commonly used modal in the main clause is will, but it is also possible to use other modals and phrasal verbs such as can, may, must and be going to.

·        If he wins the elections, he’ll improve the living conditions.

·        If she becomes inspector, she is going to fight crimes.

·        If you want to improve, you must work hard.

·        If your car is out of order, you can come with us.

·        If you don’t register, you may regret.

2-     Should can be used when the action or event in the if-clause is more doubtful or unlikely.

·        If it should rain, I’ll stay at home.                                                                                                                                                          

This form is often combined with an imperative:

·         If you should see the teacher, tell her I^'ll be late.

  2.2. Unreal Conditionals

2.1.3.     Hypothetical Conditional (Type 2)

It is also called second conditional. It is used to express an unlikely connection between an imaginary event (if … past tense) and another imaginary event (would+verb), i.e. there’s no possibility for events to happen because they are not real.

·        If I had the keys, I would open the door.

(In fact I don’t have the keys so I cannot open the door.

·        If he passed his `A' levels, he would go to university.

·        I f she succeeded this examination, she would have great opportunities for a better job.

·        He would travel elsewhere if he didn’t get this job.

*Note that the meaning in the conditional sentences is present even though past tenses are used.

Variations of Type 2

1-     The most commonly used modal in the main clause is would, but it is also possible to use other modals such as could and might.

·        We could watch tennis this afternoon if the teacher let us out early.

·        If you came in the summer, you could stay with us and you might even visit monumental places.

The subjunctive of the verb `to be'

1-     The past subjunctive of ‘to be’ (were) is used in the main clause instead of was in formal English. ‘Were’ is used in with all persons.

·        If I were offered a place at the university, I^'d take it.

·        If they were unable to get a grant, they would work in the holidays.

·        If he were teaching at the moment, he would be taking an English class.

2-     ‘If  I were you,  I should/would ...’ is used as a way of giving advice:

·        If I were you I would put my child^'s name down for that school as soon as possible.

·        If I were you, I wouldn’t travel abroad.

2.1.4.     Counterfactual Conditional (Type 3)

It is also called third conditional. It is used to express an imaginary connection between events which never happened (If  past perfect ,  would have + past participle)  , i.e, there is no possibility for  the events to happen because they are imagined in the past and therefore the condition cannot be fulfilled.

·        If I had known the college was so far away, I wouldn^'t have gone there.

(But in fact I didn’t know and I went)

·        If John had died young, he wouldn’t have had children.

·                 He would have been top of the class if he had worked harder.

(He didn^'t work hard so he wasn^'t top of the class)

The past perfect continuous tense can also be used in the if-clause:

·         If he had been listening, he would have heard the result of the examination.

It is possible to begin the sentence with had.

·        Had John died young, he wouldn’t have had children.

Variations of type 3

The most commonly used modal in the main clause is would have, but it is also possible to use other modals such as could have and might have.

·        If my elder brother had gone to university, he might have become an architect. (possibility)

·        If he had become an architect, he could have designed bridges. (ability)

  2.2. ‘Will’ and  ‘Would’ in the if-clause

Will and would are not usually used after ‘if’ in conditional sentences, but there are certain exceptions.

a.        Will

It is used to mean ‘if you insist’ or to make a polite invitation or a request.

·        If you will continue working in this bad way, then you will certainly get fired. (If you insist)

·        If you will arrive late, it^'s not surprising the teacher gets annoyed.

·        If you will take a seat, I'll try and find the Headmaster. (invitation)

·        If you will open the door, I will put these in .(request)

b.      would

It is used to express a desired outcome.

·        If you would let me know the answer as soon as possible, I would be most grateful.

·        If it would stop snowing, we would go out and make a snowman.

c.       I wonder if you would /could

It is another polite way of asking for help.

·        I wonder if you would/could tell the Headmaster that I'm here.

·        I wonder if he would take a message for me.

d.      ‘Won't’ meaning  refusal

·        If he won^'t learn his lessons, he^'ll never improve his English.

2.3. ‘Unless’ and ‘If only’

a.      Unless

Unless is used to mean ‘except if’ or ‘only under the following circumstances’. It sometimes has the same meaning as if … not.

·        He won’t succeed unless he works hard. ( He won’t succeed if he doesn’t work hard.)

·        She won’t come unless you invite her. ( She won’t  come if  you don’t invite her.)

Unless is not used in counterfactual conditional, when there is a negative cause or reason or when the main clause in started with then.

·        If he didn’t have this handicap, he would be very cool. (Unless he had this handicap,…)

·        If the keys are not hung at the entrance, then dad must have taken them. (Unless the keys are hung….)

b.      ‘If only’ and ‘only if’

‘If only’ is used in unreal conditionals to indicate a wish or a regret.

·        If only the rain would stop, we could go out to play. (We wish it would stop.)

·        If only I hadn^'t wasted my time, I would have got a diploma. (I regret wasting my time.)

N.B. ‘If only’ often makes the wish or regret sound stronger:

·        I^'m starving! If only the bell would ring for lunch. (wish)

·        I'm broke! If only I hadn't spent all my money. (regret)

‘Only if’ is used to emphasize a special condition.

·        She won’t come only if you invite her.

·        Call me only if there is an emergency.

CONJUNCTIONS

( LECTURE)

(by Dr. HEMCHE Hidaya Amina and Dr. HAKEM Hadia)

1. Definition

Conjunctions are one type of linking words. A conjunction is a part of speech that joins or connects two elements together (i.e. words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs).

2. Types of Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions:

 2.1. Coordinating Conjunctions

 Also called coordinators, are the simplest kind of conjunctions and all have fewer than four letters. These are used to join parts of a sentence (items) that are grammatically equal and similar in importance and structure:      

                                                                   +

                                           word                   to                    word     

phrase                to                    phrase         

clause                 to                    clause     

• Word to word:          Most children like [cookies] and [suits].     
• Phrase to phrase:      Do you like camping [at the beach] or [by the lakeside]?         
• Clause to clause:      [The train came late] and [I was tired].

Coordinating conjunctions are: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet and So. Generally, the acronym FANBOYS is used to remember them; based on their initials spell.

N.B.: Coordinators always occur between the items they join, neither at the beginning nor at the end of the sentence.

·         Correct: I like coffee, but I hate tea.

·         Incorrect: But I hate tea, I like coffee.

2.1.1. Punctuation with Coordinating Conjunctions

A-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases or subordinate clauses, there is no need to put a comma before the conjunction.

• Words: Jack and Jill went up the hill.
• Phrases: You can sit next to me or behind Tom.
• Subordinate clauses: The water was cold but I went swimming.

                                   She is kind so she helps.

B-    When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction.

·        I want to become a journalist in the future, so I am specialising in translation from French to English.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well balanced, there is no need to put a comma.

·        She failed so she is sad.

C-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two or more items, this creates a series and a comma is, then, required between the two first elements and optional before the conjunction.

Examples:

·        Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

Or

·         Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing and reading comprehension.

D-    A comma is also used with but, when expressing contrast.

·        This rule is useful, but difficult to understand.

  2.1.2. Use of coordinating Conjunctions

a. For

The word for is most of the time used as a preposition. However, it also functions; on more rare occasions; as a coordinating conjunction. The coordinator for is used to introduce a reason for the preceding clause.

·         The baby is sleeping for he has been crying all night long.

b. And

As a conjunction, and is used in the following cases:

1-     To show that one action is chronologically sequential to another (i.e.to express a chronological sequence of actions).

·         She sent in her application for the job and is still waiting for an answer.

2-     To show that one action is the result of another.

·         They invested money in the company right at the start and this brought them success.

3-      To show that one idea is in contrast to another (usually, and may be replaced by but in this usage).

·         By the end of the day, we were tired and happy.

·         By the end of the day, we were tired but happy.

4-      To suggest an element of surprise. In this case, and is often replaced by yet;

·         It is a small car, and it is surprisingly spacious.

·         It is a small car, yet it is surprisingly spacious. 

5-     To show that one clause is dependent upon another. Usually in this case, the first clause is an imperative.

·         Miss another class and you will fail.

6-     To give a kind of comment on the first clause.

·         Mark became addicted to drugs- and that was a surprise for no one.

c.  Nor

The conjunction nor is not often met as the other conjunctions, especially when used alone. Nevertheless, nor is usually used in conversation or writing with other negative expressions to express a non- contrasting negative idea.

·         He wasn’t there on Monday, nor on Tuesday for the meeting.

     d.  But

1-      But is used to suggest a contrast that is unexpected to occur in light of the first clause.

·         A terrible accident occurred between two buses, but no one was injured.

2-      But is also used to link two ideas in the meaning of “with the exception of”. In this case, the second word plays the role of subject.

·         All the employees but Mr. Wilson went on a strike.

e.  Or

1-      Or is used to suggest that only one possibility can be realised, excluding one or the other.

·         You must study hard or you will fail.

2-     To introduce a combination of alternatives.

·         Do you prefer meat or fish for dinner?

3-     To suggest a restatement or correction of the first part of the sentence.

·         Jack masters height languages, or so he pretends.

f.  So

1-      As a conjunction, so is used to express the result or consequence of an action.

·         It was still painful so I went to the doctor again.

2-      So can also be used to express sameness or addition.

·         Soto is not the only Olympic athlete of his family, so are his brother, sister and uncle.

3-      Sometimes, so occurs at the beginning of a sentence to act as a summing device or transition. In this case, it is often separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

·         So, the police arrived and intervened rapidly.

g. Yet

The word yet functions as a coordinating conjunction with the meaning of nevertheless or but.

·         He is brilliant, yet he didn’t pass the exam.

2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions

   Subordinating conjunctions; also called subordinators; are found only in     complex sentences and used to join two clauses together: the main (or   independent) clause to the subordinate (or dependent) one.

The idea in the main clause is the most important one while that of the subordinate clause is less important as illustrated below:

      Independent Clause          Subordinating Conjunction        Dependent Clause

    Frank went swimming                  although                       it was raining. 

    2.2.1. Remarks

ü  Notice that the independent clause can stand alone as it carries the main idea of the sentence, whereas the subordinate clause cannot as it depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. Besides, it supplies a time, reason, condition; and so on; for the main clause.

ü  A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause, as it introduces it.

·         The snowman melted       because           the sun came out.

                                                        Subordinator       Subordinate Clause

ü  The subordinate clause can occur after or before the main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

A-     Structure One:  Main Clause   +  Subordinate Clause

·        All is lost unless we act now.

B-     Structure Two:  Subordinate Clause  +  Main Clause

·         After the rain stopped, the dog run into the mud to play.

    2.2.2. Punctuation Note

When the independent clause precedes the dependent one in a sentence, no comma is needed to separate the two clauses. However, if the dependent clause is placed first, a comma is required between the two clauses.

The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are summarised in the table below; some of which may also be used as prepositions.

Le cours couvre les aspects fondamentaux du droit applicable aux entreprises, en mettant l'accent sur leur structure, fonctionnement, évolution et interactions juridiques. Voici un résumé structuré par chapitre principal, basé sur les titres fournis.

1. Droit de l’entreprise, Introduction aux principes généraux du droit régissant l’entreprise en tant qu’entité économique et juridique.
2. La forme de l’entreprise
   • Entreprise individuelle : Structure simple pour un entrepreneur seul.
   • Entreprises publiques : Formes étatiques ou publiques, avec spécificités réglementaires.
3. L’entreprise et l’évolution économique et technologique, Analyse de l’adaptation de l’entreprise aux changements économiques (mondialisation, crises) et technologiques (numérisation, IA).
4. L’entreprise et son fonds de commerce, Étude du fonds de commerce comme actif immatériel clé (clientèle, marque, baux), sa cession et protection.
5. L’activité de l’entreprise, Classification des activités :
   • Industrielles (production).
   • Bancaires et d’assurance (réglementées).
   • Commerciales et de distribution.
   • De service.
   • Littéraires, artistiques et culturelles.
6. Le financement de l’entreprise, Modes de financement :
   • Fonds propres (capital social).
   • Endettement (emprunts).
   • Financements intermédiaires (leasing, factoring).
   • Marchés financiers (actions, obligations).
7. Les actifs de l’entreprise, Inventaire et gestion des actifs (corporels, incorporels, financiers).
8. Les opérations de l’entreprise, Opérations courantes (achats, ventes, fusions) et leurs implications juridiques.
9. Les groupements d’entreprises
   • Groupements contractuels (GIE, coopérations).
   • Groupements sociétaires (holdings, sociétés de groupe).
10. Les contrats de partenariat, Contrats spécifiques (joint-ventures, franchises, concessions).
11. Les entreprises en réseaux, Modèles collaboratifs (réseaux d’entreprises, supply chain).
12. L’entreprise et le droit social, Relations avec le droit du travail (contrats, RH, syndicats).

Ce résumé met en lumière une progression logique : de la forme et activité de base vers les aspects financiers, opérationnels et relationnels. Il s’adapte bien au contexte algérien des entreprises, avec un focus sur la réglementation locale.

Ce cours couvre l’analyse des capitaux d’investissement d’un point de vue économique de l’ingénieur. Il est destiné à aider les futurs managers à comparer et décider entre les différentes alternatives concernant l’investissement du capital. A la fin du cours, les étudiants seront capables de:

· Connaitre les différents concepts de coûts, d’intérêt, d’équivalence en mettant l’accent sur les techniques d’évaluation des capitaux de projets.

· Planifier et budgétiser les capitaux.

Semestre : 6

Unité d’enseignement : UET 3.2

Matière : Entrepreneuriat et management d’entreprise

VHS : 22h30 (Cours : 1h30)

Crédits : 1

Coefficient : 1

Objectifs de l’enseignement

-       Se préparer à l’insertion professionnelle en fin d’études.

-       Développer les compétences entrepreneuriales chez les étudiants ;

-       Sensibiliser les étudiants et les familiariser avec les possibilités, les défis, les procédures, les caractéristiques, les attitudes et les compétences que requiert l’entrepreneuriat ;

-       Préparer les étudiants pour qu’ils puissent, un jour ou l’autre, créer leur propre entreprise ou, du moins, mieux comprendre leur travail dans une PME.

Connaissances préalables recommandées

Aucune connaissance particulière, sauf la maitrise de langue d’enseignement.

Compétences visées :

Capacités d’analyser, de synthétiser, de travailler en équipe, de bien communiquer oralement et parécrit, d’être autonome, de planifier et de respecter les délais, d’être réactif et proactif. Être sensibilisé à l’entrepreneuriat par la présentation d’un aperçu des connaissances de gestion utiles à la création d’activités.

Contenu de la matière :

Chapitre 1 –Préparation opérationnelle à l’emploi : (2 Semaines)

Rédaction de la lettre de motivation et élaboration du CV, Entretien d’embauche, …, Recherche documentaire sur les métiers de la filière, Conduite d’interview avec les professionnels du métier et Simulation d’entretiens d’embauches.

Chapitre 2 - Entreprendre et esprit entrepreneurial : (2 Semaines)

Entreprendre, Les entreprises autour de vous, La motivation entrepreneuriale, Savoir fixer des objectifs, Savoir prendre des risques

Chapitre 3 - Le profil d’un entrepreneur et le métier d’Entrepreneur : (3 Semaines)

Les qualités d’un entrepreneur, Savoir négocier, Savoir écouter, La place des PME et des TPE en Algérie, Les principaux facteurs de réussite lors de la création d’une TPE/PME

Chapitre 4 - Trouver une bonne idée d’affaires : (2 Semaines)

La créativité et l’innovation, Reconnaître et évaluer les opportunités d’affaires

Chapitre 5–Lanceret faire fonctionner une entreprise : (3 Semaines)

Choisir un marché approprié, Choisir l’emplacement de son entreprise, Les formes juridiques de l’entreprise, Recherche d’aide et de financement pour démarrer une entreprise, Recruter le personnel, Choisir ses fournisseurs

Chapitre 6 - Elaboration du projet d’entreprise : (3 Semaines)

Le Business Model et le Business Plan, Réaliser son projet d’entreprise avec le Business Model Canevas

Mode d’évaluation : Examen : 100%

Références :

- FayolleAlain, 2017. Entrepreneuriat théories et pratiques, applications pour apprendre à entreprendre.Dunod, 3e éd.

- LégerJarniou, Catherine, 2013, Le grand livre de l'entrepreneur. Dunod, 2013.

- PlaneJean-Michel, 2016, Management des organisations théories, concepts, performances. Dunod, 4ème éd.

- LégerJarniou, Catherine, 2017, Construire son Business Plan. Le grand livre de l'entrepreneur. Dunod,.

- Sion Michel, 2016, Réussir son business Méthodes, outils et astuces plan.Dunod ,4èmeéd.

- Patrick Koenblit, Carole Nicolas, Hélène Lehongre, Construire son projet professionnel, ESF, Editeur 2011.

- Lucie Beauchesne, Anne Riberolles, Bâtir son projet professionnel, L'Etudiant 2002.

- ALBAGLI Claude et HENAULT Georges (1996), La création d'entreprise en Afrique, ed EDICEF/AUPELF ,208 p.

Bienvenue sur le cours Fiscalité des entreprises

Tous  les  événements  économiques  de  l'entreprise  ont  des  conséquences  juridiques  et 

comptables, mais également fiscales. La variable fiscale  impacte donc l'activité quotidienne 

de  tous  les  acteurs  de  l'entreprise.  Cette  étude  est  conçue  pour  acquérir  une  première 

connaissance  de  la  fiscalité  des  entreprises.  Elle  permet  de  mieux  prendre  en  compte 

l'incidence fiscale des différentes opérations de l'entreprise dans son activité et ainsi de mieux 

dialoguer avec les fiscalistes. Elle constitue également une formation de base en fiscalité en 

vue d'un perfectionnement ultérieur

Ce cours est destiné aux étudiants de la 3ème années classe supérieure

Ce cours est composé  d’un ensemble d’unités d’apprentissage qui vous permettent d’acquérir 

des  compétences  en  matière  d’utilisation  des  techniques  de  base  et  des  modalités  des  lois 

fiscaux afin de maîtriser les mécanismes de base de la fiscalité des entreprises.

OBJECTIFS GENERAUX DE LA MATIERE D’ENSEIGNEMENT

Dubbing and Subtitling

DEFINITIONS
EARLY SOUND FILM AND MULTIPLE LANGUAGE VERSIONS
THE DUBBING AND SUBTITLING INDUSTRIES
SUBTITLING VERSUS DUBBING
FURTHER READING

Dubbing and subtitling are two major types of screen translation, the two most used in the global distribution and consumption of filmic media. Since their arrival with the introduction of sound to cinema, both have been seen as compromised methods of translating dialogue because they interfere in different ways with the original text, sound track, or image. Since the early 1930s, most countries have tended to favor either one mode or the other. While there are many forms of language versioning or transfer in current use in the global audiovisual industries, and any one of these might be used in some cases on its own or in combination with others, dubbing and subtitling have remained the most recognizable, as well as the most debated, methods for cinema.

DEFINITIONS

Dubbing is a form of post-synchronized revoicing that involves recording voices that do not belong to the on-screen actors, speaking in a language different from that of the source text and ideally in synch with the film image. But dubbing can also refer more generally to adding or replacing sound effects or spoken lines by the source actors themselves in the language of the film's production, often because of poor sound quality in the original recording or for the deletion of expletives from the theatrical version for release on television. While this latter form of post-synchronized revoicing is present in virtually all modern films, it is often called "looping" to distinguish it from dubbing as language translation. Another form of revoicing is the "voice-over," in which a nonsynchronous voice that does not replace the source text and language is added to the sound track but does not replace the source text and language. Popular in Russia and Poland and used more in television than in filmtranslation, voice-over is a relatively minor mode compared to dubbing and subtitling.

Subtitling, like voice-over, presents the translated and source languages simultaneously, but it transforms speech into writing without altering the source sound track. Subtitling may be either intralingual or interlingual. In the former, the written text that appears over the image is that of the source language. This kind of subtitling, for viewers who are deaf and hard-of-hearing, is often called "captioning," and it is in prevalent use in television broadcasting. Interlingual subtitling translates the source language into the target language (or languages) in the form of one or more lines of synchronized written text. These verbal messages may include not only speech, such as dialogue, commentary, and song lyrics, but also displays, such as written signs and newspaper headlines. Subtitles usually appear at the bottom of the screen, though their placement may vary among language groups. In bilingual subtitling countries such as Belgium, Finland, and Israel, film subtitles are often present in both languages.

The national preferences for subtitled or dubbed films stem from several factors, including historical and political circumstances, traditions and industries, costs, the form to which audiences are accustomed, and the generic and artistic standing of the films themselves. Before these can be considered, it is necessary to address the historical circumstances that gave rise to dubbing and subtitling and to their emergence as the preferred forms of verbal translation in film.

EARLY SOUND FILM AND MULTIPLE LANGUAGE VERSIONS

Silent films presented few problems for language transfer, though they still entailed translation for international audiences. While silent films were well suited to consumption in a variety of cultural contexts, this was due less to their status as a universal language of images than to their intertitles and the flexibility they provided. Intertitles were not simply translated from source to target languages but creatively adapted to cater to diverse national and language groups: the names of characters, settings and plot developments, and other cultural references were altered as necessary in order to make the films internationally understandable for different national audiences. By 1927, the intertitles of Hollywood films were routinely translated into as many as thirty-six languages.

With the sound film, it was no longer possible simply to replace intertitles. Subtitling and dubbing have been in use since 1929, but when the first American sound films reached Europe they did not immediately become the preferred solutions to the new problem of sound film translation. Instead, multilingual productions or multiple language versions (MLVs) experienced a period of ascendency and decline from 1929 to 1933. During this time, American film studios either brought foreign directors, scriptwriters, and actors to Hollywood or set up film production studios in Europe. Warner Bros. was the first American producer to engage in MLV production, with some European producers and all of the major Hollywood studios following suit. Paramount invested the most, building a huge studio in early 1930, at Joinville in the suburbs of Paris, that was soon producing films in as many as fourteen different languages. Films that were shot simultaneously in two or three languages usually had just one director, but for a higher number of MLVs each could have a different director. Polyglot actors might perform in more than one language version, but the norm was different casts for different versions. Sets and costumes were reused, which meant shooting versions in shifts according to a twenty-four-hour schedule. Production time was short, often less than two weeks per feature. At its peak, between March 1930 and March 1931, Joinville turned out an astonishing one hundred features and fifty shorts.

Despite such rationing of production time, MLVs meant an enormous increase in costs, and their standardized plots worked against satisfying the cultural diversity of their target audiences. Their lack of profitability, inability to meet generic requirements across cultures, and the perception that they were purely commercial products led to a precipitous decline in MLVs, with Hollywood ceasing multilingual production entirely in 1933 and Germany and France soon thereafter. Although many established and promising young directors made MLVs, few of their works are considered to be of lasting artistic value. An exception is Josef von Sternberg's Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel, 1930), shot in English and German versions for Ufa (Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft) and Paramount. The Blue Angel was a substantial international hit and features the same actors (Emil Jannings and Marlene Dietrich) voicing their lines in both versions.

While the MLVs are generally considered to be a failed experiment of the early sound period, multilingual versions continued to be made sporadically in Europe. Jean Renoir's Le carrosse d'or (The Golden Coach, 1953), for example, was shot at Cinecittà with a largely Italian cast, most of whom, including the star, Anna Magnani (1908–1973), played and spoke all three languages in separately shot English, Italian, and French versions. Werner Herzog's Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht (Nosferatu the Vampyre, 1979) was double shot, with the same cast performing separate German and English versions.

THE DUBBING AND SUBTITLING INDUSTRIES

The most common explanation for the divide between dubbing and subtitling countries derives from cost: dubbing, the more expensive translation mode, is adopted by the larger, wealthier countries with significant single-language communities, subtitling by the smaller countries whose audiences comprise more restricted markets. While there is some truth to this rationale, cost alone does not dictate national choice: small Central European countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia prefer dubbing, despite its high cost. Historical and political developments, along with tradition, are equally important factors.

In Western Europe, dubbing emerged in the early 1930s as the standard method of language transfer in France, Italy, Germany, and Spain (sometimes referred to as the FIGS group). In France, where the Joinville studio was converted into a dubbing center, the supremacy of dubbing derives from the nation's cultural mission to preserve and protect the French language in the face of foreign (especially American) influence, and the prevalence of French as the lingua franca for a populace accustomed to hearing it in its own films. For the other countries of the FIGS group, culture and political ideology were determining causes. Italy, Germany, and Spain, all of which faced cultural boycotts in the mid-1930s and were ruled by fascist governments, only allowed dubbed versions of foreign films. The dictators of these countries understood how hearing one's own language served to confirm its importance and reinforce a sense of national identity and autonomy. In Italy especially—where most people, including the filmmakers themselves, spoke dialect rather than the official Tuscan—dubbing forged the synthetic unity of a shared national language. As early as 1929, Benito Mussolini's government decreed that all films projected on Italian screens must have an Italian-language sound track regardless of where it was produced. Both Francisco Franco's Spain and Adolf Hitler's Germany established strict quotas regarding imports, almost all of which were dubbed. Through the quickly established and standardized dubbing industries that were built up in these nations, dubbed movies came to be seen as local productions. The highly developed and still active dubbing industries in these countries are thus remnants of their political contexts of the early 1930s, when sound film emerged.

Dubbing is a labor-intensive process. In a sound booth, dubbing actors view film segments repeatedly while voicing their lines from a prepared script. Several recording attempts may be necessary to achieve, as near as possible, the synchronization of translated lines of dialogue or other vocalizations with the lip movements of the original on-screen actors. Films are dubbed well or badly depending on the time and care taken and the resources devoted to the process. Until the 1960s, lip synchrony was held by the dubbing industry as the most important factor for sustaining the illusion of watching and hearing a homogeneous whole. Now, lip synch is considered to be of secondary importance, since research has shown that the viewer cannot discern minor slips and discrepancies in lip movements, and asynchrony is not bothersome to audiences in dubbing countries. Audio synchrony, or using voices that fit the characters on the screen, is important to the overall effect, and studios tend to employ the same dubbing actors for well-known foreign stars. This has led in some cases to voice actors achieving star power within the industry, or even becoming film actors in their own right: for example, Monica Vitti (b. 1931), the star of several Michelangelo Antonioni films in the 1960s, came to the director's notice through a dubbing assignment for his film Il Grido (The Cry, 1957). In the postwar Indian film industry (now commonly referred to as "Bollywood"), the ubiquitous song sequences are sung not by the actors but by professional singers who can become as famous as the screen stars who lip-synch their recordings during shooting.

Even in the dubbing countries there are sectors of the audience who prefer to watch subtitled films. In France these are advertised as "version originale soustitrée" ("original version with subtitles"); in Spain, cinemas increasingly offer both subtitled and dubbed versions of foreign films. Source-language countries—which means English-speaking countries, especially the United States and the United Kingdom—import few films that are not in English and so use these language transfer modes as needed and in a mixed manner. But several non-English-speaking nations, many of which import a high proportion of films, prefer subtitling, including Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the Scandinavian countries.

Subtitling, more cost-effective than dubbing because it dispenses with sound recording and voice actors, is nonetheless complex work. The subtitling industry is not nationalized to the same degree as the dubbing one, since the translators are the key personnel and need not reside in the target country. But a primary issue for subtitling lies in the translation, which entails enormous cuts to the source dialogue—as much as half. While the ideal in subtitling is to translate each utterance in full, the limitation of screen space is a major obstacle. The average viewer's reading speed is 150–180 words per minute, with necessary intervals, which severely limits the duration and hence completeness of the subtitles. The final part of the process involves striking a duplicate photographic print of the master print, while simultaneously exposing it with titles to produce a new print with the titles "burned in." Companies hired to affix the subtitles to film prints face a myriad of possibilities concerning type size and typeface, background and placement, indications for extended sentences and multiple speakers, and the like. As with dubbing, films can be subtitled well or badly.

SUBTITLING VERSUS DUBBING

Many introductory film textbooks discuss a debate regarding subtitled versus dubbed prints of foreign films viewed by Anglo-American film studies students, and all state a preference for subtitling. The case against dubbing includes imperfect synchronicity between lip and audio or voice and body, flatness of performances and acoustics, and alteration or elimination of the original film's sound track and design. The quality of the acting is frequently noted as suffering in dubbed films, as the vocal qualities, tones, and rhythms of specific languages, combined with the gestures and facial expressions that mark national characters and acting styles, become literally lost in translation. While subtitling is acknowledged to have drawbacks as well—it is distracting and impedes concentration on the visuals and often leaves portions of the dialogue untranslated—it is seen to alter the source text the least and to enable the target audience to experience the authentic "foreignness" of the film.

But this position often does not acknowledge the selected acceptance of dubbing in subtitling countries or cases where dubbing makes more sense than subtitling. Foreign films and television programs aimed at children are dubbed in target countries that tend otherwise to subtitle because their viewers have not yet learned to read or cannot read quickly enough for subtitles to be effective. While serious moviegoers demand that art films be subtitled, they rarely complain that foreign films in lower, more commercial genres such as the "spaghetti western," giallo, martial arts, comedies, and anime are usually released in dubbed versions. For Italian cinema, popular or art, the authenticity argument does not hold: almost all Italian films are shot silent and then dubbed after filming has been completed, so there is no original sound track to speak of. The postwar era saw increased levels of co-production among nations, with the casts of co-produced films often coming from different countries and not speaking the same languages; their parts were thus dubbed by voice actors of the country in which the film was shot, and the international nature of what is in fact a polyglot film was erased. Federico Fellini's La strada (The Road, 1954) features two lead performers from the United States speaking English (Anthony Quinn and Richard Basehart) and one from Italy speaking Italian (Giulietta Masina). In terms of screen time and verbal utterances, the two American actors predominate; the Italian lead's lines are negligible. In spite of this, Anglo-American purists invariably judge the dubbed-in-Italian, subtitled-in-English version to be the more authentic even though the lips of two of the three main characters are clearly out of synch with their voices and the film was shot without sound.

The claim that subtitling involves the least interference with the original film is also arguable. Subtitles obstruct the integrity of composition and mise-en-scène by leading the viewers' eyes to the bottom of the frame. They focus audience attention on the translated words and the actors speaking them to the exclusion of peripheral or background dialogue, sound, or characters. They do not provide as full a translation as dubbing, and audiences of subtitled films do not experience the words and the expressions of the performers simultaneously. Subtitling may thus be regarded as undoing the synergy of performance and script, elevating selectively translated dialogue and downgrading the impact and importance of visual expression.

Although neither subtitling nor dubbing is an ideal form of audiovisual translation, recent technological developments have widened their application and reception. The number of individual sound tracks used in feature film sound design has increased (twenty-four tracks or more are now commonplace), as has the number of sound tracks used in the dubbing process. When each speaking character has a separate voice track in the film's original recording, dubbing only for language is possible, leaving the rest of the original aural expression of the film intact. For subtitling, laser processing has enabled the introduction of larger letters, outlined words, broader color ranges, and translucent background bands to increase legibility. But it is digitalization that has brought the most dramatic changes. Analyzing and resynthesizing the voices of dubbing actors make it possible for intonation, tone, and timbre to be adjusted to match those of the source actors almost identically. Asynchrony between lip movements and translated revoicings can also be corrected digitally to achieve lip synchrony, which is especially important in close-ups. The introduction of "soft titles," which are similar to the simultaneous translation one may experience with opera, has been enabled by CD-ROM technology and has allowed for high-quality subtitling for films that have no existing subtitled prints, providing a cheaper and more easily transportable solution than the expensive process of burning subtitles onto a newly struck print.

Finally, the introduction of Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) and the Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) has produced increasing user choice and demand for television and film in other languages. Digital TV (DVB) enables transmission of a number of signals and thus live or simultaneous subtitling—a particularly important development for those countries accustomed to reading subtitles, as it means new access to foreign satellite channels. DVDs have become a crucial mode of film consumption. Their viewers can choose between dubbed or subtitled streams in a range of languages—up to four dubbing tracks and thirty-two subtitled tracks. Translations or subtitles are also required for the extra features frequently found on DVDs, such as trailers, behind-the-scenes documentaries, and biographical information on key cast members. While the subtitling versus dubbing debate is unlikely to ever be resolved, digital technologies have provided new opportunities for both modes of audiovisual translation.

SEE ALSO Dialogue;Sound;Technology

FURTHER READING

Betz, Mark. "The Name above the (Sub)Title: Internationalism, Coproduction, and Polyglot European Art Cinema." Camera Obscura 46 (2001): 1–44.

Danan, Martine. "Dubbing as an Expression of Nationalism." Meta: Journal des Traducteurs/Translator's Journal 36, no. 4 (1991): 606–614.

Egoyan, Atom, and Ian Balfour, eds. Subtitles: On the Foreignness of Film. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004.

Ivarsson, Jan, and Mary Carroll. Subtitling. Simrishamn, Sweden: TransEdit, 1998.

Vincendeau, Ginette. "Hollywood Babel: The Coming of Sound and the Multiple-Language Version." Screen 29, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 24–39.

Whitman-Linsen, Candance. Through the Dubbing Glass: The Synchronization of American Motion Pictures into German, French, and Spanish. New York: Peter Lang, 1992.

Description de la matière

L'optimisation est une approche mathématique pour la recherche de la "meilleure décision/action" à partir d'un "ensemble d'alternatives". Dans la pratique, on part d'un problème concret, on le modélise et on le résout mathématiquement.
Dans le secteur industriel, l'optimisation intervient dans la maximisation du bénéfice de production, la minimisation des coûts du transport, la minimisation du temps de production, l'écart par rapport à une valeur cible...
Mathématiquement, l'optimisation se traduit par la recherche des points du domaine (valeurs des variables de décision) en lequel la fonction étudiée prend la valeur maximale ou minimale. En ces points, la fonction admet un extremum, appelé aussi : optimum. Le plus souvent dans la pratique, les variables de la fonction à optimiser sont soumises à certaines conditions appelées "contraintes". Ces dernières peuvent être exprimées par des égalités ou bien des inégalités.

University: University ofAbou-Bekr Belkaid Tlemcen

Faculty: Letters and Languages

Department:English

Module:Reading Comprehension (RC)

Level:1^st Year Students (L1)

Semester: One

Unit Type: UE Méthodologique

Coefficient:02

Credit:04

Class Meeting Time: Monday 14:30 to 16

Class Location: Room 02

Course Period: 1 hour and 30 minutes

Instructor Name: Dr. Assia BENETTAYEB

Email Address: benettayebassia@gmail.com

Office Hours: Thursday at 11:30.

Course Description:

‘Reading Comprehension’ is a course addressed to first year FILA and EFL students

Course Objectives:

-          Reading different types of materials

-          Practice guided-intensive reading

-          Learn and practise reading strategies

-          Practice extensive reading.

Prerequisites:

-          Reading

-          Reading skills

Course Programme (Outline):

Reading Comprehension ‘RC’.

Contents: 

I-    Sequence One: Literary English.

·         Text 1: Literature

·         Text 2: Literary Genres in Literature

·         Extensive Reading Assignments

II-           Sequence 2: Economic Themes in English Literature.

·         Text 1: Wealth of Nations

·         Text 2: Economic Literature

·         Extensive Reading Assignments

III-   Sequence Three: Legal English.

·         Text 1: Legal Business Company and Partnerships

·         Text 2: Company Capitalisation

·         Extensive Reading Assignments.

Classroom Policies:

-          Intensive reading of short to long selections.

-          Reading practice

-          Intensive assignments

Evaluation Method: The evaluation of students goes as follow:

-          Classroom evaluation (100%) Intensive +extensive works .

-          No exam.

Bibliography and Suggested Resources:

·         Akdere, Ҫ., & Baron, C. (Eds.). (2017). Economics and Literature: A Comparative and   Interdisciplinary Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231617.

·         Austen, J. (1813). Pride and Prejudice [Project Gutenberg eBook].

·         Dickens, C. (1854). Hard times: A novel (No. 192). Harper.

·         Gilmour, R. (2014). The Victorian period: the intellectual and cultural context of English literature, 1830-1890.  Routledge.

·         Krois-Lindner, A. (2006). International Legal English. Cambridge University Press.

·         Orwell, G. (1945). Animal Farm. Available at: Global Grey ebooks https://www. globalgreyebooks.com/animal-farm-ebook.html)

·          Roshni, D (2015). Literature. Available at:https://openurl.ebsco.com/EPDB%3 Agcd%3A7%3A2287    /detailv2?sid=ebsco%3Aplink%3 Ascholar&id=ebsco%3Agcd% 3 A 1 02555389&crl=c)

·         Sinclair, U. (1906). The Jungle. Available at: Project Gutenberg: ù=à0https:// www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/140).

·         Smith, A. (1950). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,(1776). http://metalibri.incubadora.fapesp.br.

REPORTED SPEECH

(LECTURE)

(By Dr. HEMCHE Hidaya Amina and Dr. HAKEM Hadia)

In direct speech we report what someone says by repeating the exact/original words used by the speaker, (He said, ‘I’m sorry.’). When we don’t want to repeat the exact/actual speech of the speaker, we can use the indirect speech. In this way we give the exact meaning of the speech without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words (He said that he was sorry.) or we can use a summary report (He apologized.)

1.      Direct Speech

Direct speech is usually put in quotation marks (inverted commas) after reporting verbs such as answer, reply, ask or tell.

·        John said: ‘I appreciate your work.’ ( ‘John said’ is the main or reporting clause, and ‘I appreciate your work.’ is the reported clause)

We can put either a colon or a comma between the main and the reported clauses but when the main clause follows the reported clause, only the comma is used.

Quotation marks are doubled in American English (He said, “I need your help.”)

The reporting verb can be put with its subject after the direct speech or in the middle of two parts.

·        ‘This is a good work’, she said

·        ‘Hello,’ she began, ‘I would like to know,’ she continued, ‘if you can lend me your house this summer.’

After direct speech, the reporting verb is sometimes put before its subject in the reporting clause, but not when the subject is a pronoun.

·        ‘We won’t give up,’ shouted the riots / the riots shouted.

·        ‘Where is Tom?’ he asks. ( not asks he)

We can use quotation marks when we want to report exactly a specific word, phrase or title.

·        There was a sign with ‘No entry’ printed in big letters.

·         Have you read ‘Hard Times’?

2.      Indirect Speech

In indirect / reported speech, we report the meaning of what was said by the speaker rather than repeat the exact words.

We put the indirect speech in a noun clause beginning with that or a wh-word or if/ whether.

That is omitted in informal uses.

·        ‘He is a strange person.’ – He said that he was a strange person.’

·        ‘Where do you go?’ – He asks where she goes.

·        ‘Did you finish your work?’ – The teacher asked us if / whether we finished our work.

2.1. Necessary Changes:

Changes from the direct to the indirect speech depend on the situation, i.e., who speaks and to whom, who reports and to whom. Here are some typical changes.

Person (pronouns /adjectives)

I  / he / she

my  / his /her

Adverbs of place

here /there, at the theatre, at the corner, etc.

adverbs and adverbial phrases of time

today  / that day

yesterday /   the day before

the day before yesterday/  two days before

tomorrow  /  the next / following day

this week / year, etc /   that week / year, etc

last week / year  / the previous week / year, the week /year before

next week / year, etc /     the following week /year, etc

a year / an hour ago   /     a year / an hour before/ earlier, the previous year /hour

2.2. Tense Changes in Indirect Speech

a.      Introductory Verb in Present Tenses

Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in a present tense when we are:

§  Reporting a conversation which is still going on.

§  Reading a letter/ an e-mail and reporting what it says.

§  Reading instructions and reporting them.

§  Reporting a statement that someone makes very often.

Therefore, when the introductory verb is in the present simple, present perfect or future, we do not change the tense of the verb(s) in the statement (reported clause).

·         ‘I’m going to sleep’            He says that he is going to sleep.

b.      Introductory Verb in the Past Simple

 The introductory verb is mostly used in the past simple tense. In this case, we change the tense of the in the statement (reported clause) shifting from a present to a past tense and from a past tense to a past perfect. It should be noted that the form of the tense doesn’t change; i.e., simple, continuous and perfect remain the same, except from the past simple to the past perfect. There are examples in the following table:

1. When the past continuous refers to an action that was completed before another in the past simple or present perfect, then the past continuous becomes past perfect continuous.

              -‘We were planning to buy a new house but we have decided not to.’

                     He said that they had been planning to buy a new house but had    

                     decided not to.

2. In written English past tenses usually do change to past perfect. But there are the following exceptions:

   a. Past / past continuous tenses used in time clauses normally do not change.

          He said, ‘When I was watering/ watered the garden…’

                 He said that when he was watering / watered the garden…

The main verb in time clauses can either remain unchanged or change to the past perfect.

           He said, ‘When I was watering the garden, I found a coin.’

                 He said that when he was watering the garden, he found / had    

                 found a coin.

    b. Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) after wish, would rather/ sooner and it is (high) time don’t change.

          ‘We wish we didn’t have to take exams’, said the students.

                The students said they wished they didn’t have to take exams.

          She said, ‘It’s (high) time we started changing our bad habits’.

                 She said that it was (high) time they started changing their bad habits.

  c. Conditional sentences type 2, 3 remain unchanged.

            -‘If I knew, I would tell her,’ said Tom.       Tom said that if he knew, he would tell her.

c. Modals:

When reporting with a verb in the past simple, some modals change but others remain unchanged as it is shown in the table:

   -‘People will love it.’           He said that people would love it.

   -‘When shall I leave?’         She asked where she should leave. (request)

   -‘We shall visit you soon?’        He said that they would visit us soon. (future/prediction)

   -‘You must stop smoking.’           The doctor told me that I had to/ must stop smoking.  (obligation/necessity)

2.3. Reporting Verbs:

a. Reporting Verbs with that-clauses.

Some reporting verbs are followed by that- clauses in indirect speech and the introduction of an object (hearer) after the reporting verb depends on which verb is used.

1. Reporting verbs such as tell, assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade, remind and warn, necessitate the inclusion of an object.

·         ‘They will leave early.’      He told me that they would leave early.(He told that they...)

·         ‘You should not play with wire.’      He wanted her that she shouldn’t play with wire.

·          ‘I changed my address’       I notified the bank that I had changed my address.

·          ‘I’ll come back early’       I assured my mother that I would come back early

 (I assured that I……)

* We use tell without an object only with the expressions tell the truth, tell a lie, tell a story, tell the time, tell you so.

2. Reporting verbs such as say, admit, confess, mention, propose, report, announce, complain, explained, indicate, suggest and recommend can be followed by an object but proceeded by to (to + object).

- ‘I’ve done my job.’            He said (to us) that he had done his job.

- ‘I’m guilty.’           He confessed (to me) that he was guilty.

3. Reporting verbs such as agree, disagree, argue, check and confirm can be followed by an object but proceeded by with (with + object).

 - He disagreed (with me) that you were wrong.

 - She checked (with me) that the machine was not defective.

4. With some reporting verbs such as expect, believe, feel, intend, plan, think, suppose, want, to report a negative sentence, the reporting verb is made negative.

             - ‘I expect she won’t tell the truth.’/ ‘I don’t expect she will tell the truth.’                

        The judge didn’t expect her to tell the truth.

             -‘He won’t come on time.’          She didn’t think he will come on time.  

      (Rather than She thought he wouldn’t come on time)

b. Reporting Verbs with Infinitives and Gerunds.

1. Reporting verbs such as ask, invite, encourage, urge, order, expect, remind and warn are used with objects followed by infinitives. (object + to infinitive) .

   - ‘You can go with me?’         He invited me to go with him.

   - ‘Don’t touch that wire.’         He warned us not to touch that wire.

2. Reporting verbs such as offer, apply, decide, decline, demand, refuse and volunteer do not require an object before the infinitive.

    - ‘I’ll help you.’          He volunteered to help us.

    - ‘I don’t want to quit.’           He refused to quit.

    - ‘I won’t go.’          He decided not to go.

 3. Reporting verbs such as promise, agree, claim, hope, propose, threaten, vow, think, acknowledge, expect, assume, declare and report can be followed by an infinitive or a       that-clause.

    - ‘We’ll call you.’               They promised to call me.

                                               They promised that they would call me.

   -‘Shall we rewrite it?’            He proposed to rewrite it.

                                                  He proposed that we should rewrite it.

4. Reporting verbs such as deny, suggest, admit, mention, report, propose and recommend can be followed by a gerund or a that-clause.

  - ‘You should leave early.’              He recommended leaving early.

                                                                   He recommended that we should leave

                                                              early.

        -‘I didn’t take it.’           He denied taking it.

                                               He denied that he had taken it.

       -‘Shall we do the work again.’             She proposed doing the work again.

                                                                     She proposed that we should do the

                                                                    Work again.

  -‘No, I’ll pay for the meal.’         He insisted on paying for the meal.

c. Reporting Verbs in Summary Reports.

1. In summary reports we summarize what was said using some reporting verbs such as confess, apologize, and threaten. The verbs speak, talk and thank are used only in summary reports (not in direct and indirect speech).

        - ‘Don’t think to escape or I call the police.’         He threatened us.

        - ‘Excuse me for what I did.’         He apologised.

        - ‘What I said was true.’         He confessed.

        - He said, ‘I’ve a problem.’         He talked to me about the problem.

        - She said, ‘Thank you.’           She thanked me.

        - She spoke briefly to reporters.

 2. In summary report we use some verbs with about such as boast, lie, complain, inquire, joke, protest, speak and write.

           - He complained about his living conditions.

           - She inquired about the time of leaving.

           - He joked about my new clothes. 

           - He boasted about his win.

2.4. Reporting questions.

1. We often report questions with verbs such as ask, wonder, and want to know. Wh-questions are reported with the wh-word and the statement and yes- no questions are reported with if or whether and the statement. When reporting questions, the subject and the verb follow their order as in the statement. The question mark is omitted.

          -‘Where are you going?’         She asked me where I was going.

          -‘Is your father a doctor?’        She wanted to know if / whether my father was a        doctor.

2. We can report some wh-questions with should (about the right thing to do) by using an infinitive.

              - ‘What should I bring with me?’        She asked me what to bring with her.

3. Only whether is used after the verb question, after a preposition and before an infinitive.

             - ‘Are you terrified?’        The man questioned whether they were terrified.

             - ‘Are history books available?’        He inquired about whether history books were available.

              - ‘Should I wait for you?’         She wondered whether to wait for me.

              -‘Did you switch off the computer or not?’       He wondered whether or not you switched off the computer or if /whether you switched off the computer or not.

2.5. Reporting Orders, Requests, Advice and Opinions.

* Orders:

1. To report orders we usually use tell with an object and an infinitive.

     - ‘Don’t touch this object.’        He told us not to touch that object.

                                          ( Or: He told us that we must not /didn’t have

                                                 to touch that object.)

         - ‘Start with the first list.’        She ordered everyone to start with the first list.

2. Orders can be reported with have to, must or subjunctive in more formal situations with demand and insist.

    - ‘Stop talking.’         The teacher told us that we must / had to stop talking.

                             Or  The teacher told us to stop talking.

         - ‘Do it yourself.’         He insisted that we had to/must do it ourselves.

                               Or  He insisted that we do it ourselves.

*Requests:

We report requests mainly using ask with an object and the infinitive. Other verbs are: beg, plead to and request.

   - ‘Could you stop smoking, please?’           He asked me to stop smoking.

                                                       Or  She asked (me) if I could stop smoking.

       -  ‘Please help me.’            The old man asked me if I could / would help him.

       -   ‘May I lend your book?’           He asked to lend him my book. (The object is not mentioned because we report request by the speaker about his own action)

*Advice:

1. The verb advise can be used to report advice with an object and an infinitive or with a    that-clause or a gerund.

  -‘Take care of your mother.’         He advised her to take care of her mother.

                                                        He advised (her) that she should take care of

                                                          her mother.

                                            He advised taking care of her mother.

2. We can use recommend or suggest to report advice with a that-clause with should or a subjunctive. We can also use a gerund when we don’t want to mention who will perform the action.

         -‘You should go by train.’              He suggested that we should go by train.

                                                        He suggested that we go by train.

                                                        He suggested going by train.

*Opinions:

1. Opinions are reported using verbs such as: think, believe, expect, feel, imagine, reckon, suppose and suspect with a that-clause.

     - It’s a nice room.’           He thought that it was a nice room.

         - ‘My daughter will succeed the exam.’        She believed that her daughter would succeed the exam.

2. We can use tell and say in continuous tenses to report opinions in informal situations.

    - The students are saying that the exam was too difficult.

*The use of the different reporting verbs either with a that-clause, an infinitive or a gerund is summarised in the following table.

Examples of Reporting Verbs

N.B.: Complain, inquire, joke and boast   (+ about + NP)

REVIEW OF TENSES

( By Dr. HAKEM Hadia and Dr HEMCHE Hidaya Amina)

Tense is the relationship between the form of the verb and the time when the action happens or the state it describes. There are simple tenses, continuous tenses where the verb is formed with the auxiliary ‘be’ and the present participle, and perfect tenses where the verbs are formed with the auxiliary ‘have’ and the past participle.

1. Present Tenses                                                                                                                                            

1.1. The Simple Present Tense

Regular and irregular verbs form the simple present with the addition of ‘s’ or ‘es’ in the third person singular.

·        He pays rent to the landlord every month. (affirmative form)

·        Does he pay rent to the landlord every month? (interrogative form)

·         He doesn^'t pay rent to the landlord every month. (negative form)

The simple present tense is used:

1-     to express habitual actions:

·        Mr Brown generally leaves the house at eight o^'clock in the morning.

 (Adverbs of frequency and adverb phrases such as never, rarely, often, seldom, sometimes, usually, frequently, always)

2-     to express natural and scientific laws, and simple facts:

·        The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

·        Gas expands on heating.

·        Mr Brown owns three houses in this street.

3-     for planned future actions often associated with travel:

·        Mr Brown^'s plane leaves at 8.30 tomorrow morning.

4-     instead of the Present Continuous form of certain verbs which are not used in the Continuous (stative verbs, these are verbs of opinion such as believe, like, doubt, and verbs of perception: see, hear, know, understand, etc.):

·        I believe this house is haunted’.

·        I often hear strange noises at night.

5-     for dramatic narration, particularly when the action of a play or a sport is being described:

·        The batsman hits the ball hard and it goes straight through the window of the house.

1.2. The Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous tense is formed with ‘am / is / are’ (or their short forms ’m/’s/’ve) followed the present participle of the verb ‘v+ing’.

·        They^'re redecorating the sitting-room again. (affirmative form)

·        Are they redecorating the sitting-room again?   (interrogative form)

·        They aren't redecorating the sitting-room again. (negative form)

The present continuous tense is used:

1-      generally to express a temporary action in progress at present (an action happening now)

·        The builders are mending the roof.

·        Listen! The birds are singing outside.

2-    for an action not necessarily happening at the moment but occurring about this time:

·        I’m quite busy these days. I’m working with my uncle on a new project.

3-    for the arranged future:

·        The nursery is sending the plants for the garden next Monday.

·        I’m seeing the manager tomorrow morning.

4-    with always/continually/constantly to express a frequently occurring action which annoys or surprises the speaker:

·        She is always leaving the front door open.

·        That student is always talking during lecture.

OR to emphasize that something is done so often that it is the characteristic of a person or thing:

·        A: I think I’ll stay here after all. –B: You’re constantly changing your mind.

5-    for a temporary situation:

·        He is paying extra premiums on his house insurance this month.

1.3. The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed with ‘has/have’ (or their short forms ’s/’ve) followed by the past participle.

·        Mr Brown has tried to mend the gate before.

·        Has Mr Brown tried to mend the gate before?

·        Mr Brown hasn^'t tried to mend the gate before.

N.B.: Although this tense is described as a present tense, it really refers to a past that is in some way connected with the present.

The present perfect tense is used:

1-     for an action begun in the past and not yet finished:

·        The Smiths have lived in that house all their lives.

2-   with for and since to express an action which started in the past and extends to the present.

Since is used with a point of time in the past until now:

·        He has worked as a plumber since he left school.

For is used with a period of time:

·        He has worked as a plumber for 10 years.

3-     with ever to express at any time in the past until now:

·        Have you ever been to South America?

4-     with just to express a recently completed action:

·        The children have just come home from school.

5-     for an action which occurred in the past but may be repeated in the future:

·        He has built many beautiful houses.

6-     After ‘It/That/This is /will be the first/second…time…’

·        It’s the first time I’ve eaten such a delicious meal.

·        This’s the second time I’ve been in big troubles. (talking about past events)

·        It won’t be the first time he has disagreed with his parents. (talking about future events)

If the past simple is used instead of is/will, then the past perfect is used.

·        It was the first time I had called him on his personal number.

1.4. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The present perfect continuous Tense is formed with ‘has/have been’ followed by the present participle ‘v+ing^’.

·        The builders have been working hard for the last hour.

·        Have the builders been working hard for the last hour?

·        The builders haven^'t been working hard for the last hour.

The present perfect continuous tense is used:

1-      for an action which began in the past and is still continuing:

·  The repairs in your street have been causing lots of traffic problems.

·  He has been repairing the machine the whole day.

2-      in the same way as the Present Perfect to express periods of time with for and since:

·        They've been waiting to be rehoused for six years.

·        I^'ve been living in this house since 1970.

N.B.: This tense is commonly used to describe how long an action has been going on.

3-       for an action which has just finished:

·        The painter has just been putting the final touches to the paintwork.

2. Past Tenses

2.1. The Simple Past Tense

Regular verbs form the simple past with the addition of ‘—ed’.

·        He worked hard on the car yesterday. (affirmative form)

·        Did he work hard on the car yesterday? (interrogative form)

·        He didn't work hard on the car yesterday. (negative form)

Irregular verbs take many forms in the affirmative (refer to the list).

·        He drove a long way yesterday.

·        Did he drive a long way yesterday?

·        He didn^'t drive a long way yesterday.

The simple past tense is used:

1-     for an action completed in the past at a known time:

·        He had six accidents last year.

·        He bought an i-pad in his last trip to Spain.

2-     for an action which took place in the past for which the time is understood but not stated:

·        I bought my new car in London.

·        Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.

3-     for habitual actions and states in the past:

·         He was furious every time he got a parking ticket.

·         He never drove faster than the speed limit.

4-     For two or more past actions in a sequence, especially in narrative:

·        He knocked her down, grabbed her purse and ran off.

The simple past or the present perfect

Very often there is confusion in the use of the present perfect and the past simple.

1-     We use the past simple when we think that the situation is finished and the present perfect when we think that the situation has not yet finished.

·        My father worked in this bank for 25 years. (He is no more working now)

·        My father has worked in this bank for 25 years. (He’s still working there)

2-     With time expressions referring to the present, such as this morning/year and today, we use the past simple when we think that this time period is completed; and we use the present perfect when we think that this time period has not yet finished.

·        I didn’t take my coffee this morning. (The morning is over and I didn’t take my coffee)

·        I haven’t taken my coffee this morning. (It’s still the morning and I may take my coffee later) 

3-We use the present perfect to give a piece of news and the past simple to give and ask for details about things such as what, where and why.

·        A: I have sold my car. (A piece of news)

 B: Oh, have you? When did you sell it? (Asking for details)

 A: I sold it the day before yesterday. (Giving details)

2.2. The Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is formed with ‘was/were’ followed by the present participle of the verb.

·        They were crossing the road while the traffic lights were changing. (affirmative form)

·        Were they crossing the road while the traffic lights were changing? (interrogative form)

·        They weren't crossing the road while the traffic lights were changing. (negative form)

The past continuous tense is used

1-    for continuous past action:

·        It was snowing heavily all day yesterday.

2-    for frequently repeated actions in the past:

·        My old car was always breaking down.

3-    for two actions in the past occurring simultaneously:

·        The lorry driver was braking hard while the traffic lights were changing.

4-    for interrupted past action (first action interrupted by second):

·        He was racing down the motorway when a tyre burst.

5-    to express intention in the past but in fact not done:

·        I was going to buy a car but I didn^'t have enough money.

2.3. The Past Perfect Tense (the pluperfect)

The past perfect tense is formed with ‘had’ followed by the past participle of the verb.

·        He had typed half of the research paper before midnight.

·        He hadn’t typed half of the research paper before midnight.

·        Had he typed half of the research paper before midnight.

The past perfect tense is used:

1-     to express the first of two past actions:

·        He had already parked the car when I arrived.