Avant le XXème siècle, la linguistique en tant que telle n’existait pas. Le langage a d’abord été étudié dans le cadre de la description de l’histoire de la littérature, puis suite à la découverte du sanskrit, le langage est devenu un objet d’observation chez les grammairiens comparatistes, qui faisaient des études comparatives entre le sanskrit et le latin ou le grec. À cette époque, le centre de préoccupation était le problème de l’origine du langage.

Ensuite, est apparue l’école des néogrammairiens, qualifiés parfois de précurseurs de la linguistique : ils s’intéressaient avant tout aux phénomènes phonétiques. Dans ce contexte, et avec les travaux de Saussure, l’étude du langage a acquis le statut de science. Saussure est le fondateur du structuralisme en linguistique, et il est considéré généralement comme le père de la linguistique. La linguistique est une discipline scientifique s’intéressant à l’étude du langage. Elle se distingue de la grammaire, dans la mesure où elle n'est pas prescriptive mais descriptive. La prescription correspond à la norme, c'est-à-dire ce qui est jugé correct linguistiquement par les grammairiens. À l'inverse, la linguistique descriptive des linguistes se contente de décrire la langue telle qu'elle est et non telle qu'elle devrait être.

Ce cours porte sur l’introduction à la linguistique générale. Nous allons d’abord présenter sommairement l’histoire de l’apparition de la linguistique avant d’aborder le phénomène langagier et les théories sur son apparition.  Le cours continuera par  l’étude de l’ensemble des notions élémentaires de la linguistique, introduites par Saussure, ainsi que les plus déterminantes contributions d’imminents linguistes tels que Bloomfield, Chomsky, et Sapir. Il se poursuivra par l’étude des différents niveaux d’organisation de la langue et des unités de chaque niveau, pour se terminer par la présentation de la procédure d’identification de ces unités par le schéma de commutation de Jacobson.

Ce cours s'adresse aux étudiants de premières année Anglais Langue Étrangère (English as a Foreign Language). La compétence visée par ce cours, dans son ensemble, est « de mener l’apprenant à une réflexion rigoureuse sur la nature du langage et le fonctionnement de la langue. » C’est une compétence complexe que vous allez construire progressivement en maîtrisant des savoirs, en mettant en œuvre les compétences pré-requises et nouvellement acquises, aussi en adoptant une attitude qui appuie l'autonomie des apprenants et qui développe son esprit scientifique et sa pensée critique.  

Je vais décrire avec plus détails l'évolution de la loi de diffusion dans l'espace et dans le temps. Ensuite, je traiterai quelques applications réelles. 

Ce cours examine les principes fondamentaux de la mise en place des systèmes d'informations. Grâce à une variété d'exemples pratiques, et vise à: 

En termes de connaissances :

• Donner des connaissances sur les méthodes, techniques et aptitudes fondamentales pour analyser et concevoir des systèmes d'informations. 
• Expliquer des concepts et des techniques utilisées pour la modélisation et la simulation.
• Illustrer des normes de spécification, de conception et de documentation des systèmes d'informations.

En termes de savoir-faire :

• Examiner les objectifs de la méthode MERISE.
• Extraire la différence entre la méthode MERISE et UML. 
• Créer des modélisations des systèmes d'informations en utilisant les deux méthodes : MERSIE & UML.  

En termes de savoir-être :

• Sélectionner les systèmes d'informations hospitaliers et en santé.

L’apprentissage profond (Deep Learning) est un sous-domaine de l’intelligence artificielle qui utilise des réseaux de neurones profonds pour analyser et apprendre des structures complexes à partir de grandes quantités de données. Il est particulièrement efficace pour des tâches telles que la reconnaissance d’images, le traitement du langage naturel et l’aide au diagnostic médical.

Ce cours, spécialement conçu pour les étudiants de deuxième année de master en Informatique Biomédicale et Hospitalière, offre une formation approfondie sur les concepts et techniques fondamentaux du Deep Learning. Il couvre les bases théoriques, notamment la propagation et la rétropropagation, ainsi que les aspects pratiques, tels que la gestion des paramètres et hyperparamètres pour optimiser les modèles. Une attention particulière est accordée aux réseaux de neurones convolutifs, essentiels en vision par ordinateur, en explorant leurs couches et architectures avancées. Le cours aborde également le transfert d'apprentissage, qui permet d’améliorer l’efficacité des modèles en réutilisant des modèles pré-entraînés. Enfin, les étudiants apprendront des techniques avancées telles que l'augmentation des données, l'optimisation et la régularisation afin de renforcer la robustesse des modèles.

En somme, ce programme offre une formation complète, alliant théorie et pratique, pour permettre aux étudiants de concevoir et d'optimiser des modèles d'apprentissage profond performants, notamment pour des applications dans le domaine biomédical et hospitalier.

Ce  cours  est  destiné  pour  les  étudiants  de  Master 1,  spécialité Biomathématique. Il contient les notions fondamentales de théorie des testes  statistiques  classiques  dans  un  premier  chapitre.  Nous  détaillons  dans  le  chapitre  2  les  modèles  linéaires  simples  et complexes.  Le  chapitre  3  concerne  les  écarts  aux  hypothèses  des modèles  :  normalité,  indépendance  et  homocédasticité.  Le dernier  chapitre contient les tables statistiques des lois usuelles. Des travaux dirigés accompagnent ce cours pour concrétiser les notions théoriques appris au fils des 4 chapitres. Des travaux pratiques vont ainsi permettre aux étudiants une application en utilisant le logiciel R et un traitement statistique des données réelles sous ce logiciel.

Cette matière est consacrée pour la démonstration la description des techniques

expérimentales utilisées pour les caractérisations spectrales, thermiques et photochimiques

des différents polymères synthétisés et modifiés dans le laboratoire au cours de la formation

de master. Nous donnons aussi les techniques utilisées lors de l’application des copolymères

dans le domaine de traitement des eaux usée par coagulation-floculation, notamment dans le

but d’éliminer la turbidité, les colorants industriels et les métaux lourds.

• Public cible : Étudiants de Master 1option : Chimie Macromoléculaire

• Objectifs : A l'issue de ce cours, l'étudiant sera capable de :

- Identifier les différents polymères synthétisés dans le laboratoire.

- Différencier entre les techniques utilisées dans l'analyse qualitative et quantitative des polymères.

- Adapter les propriétés physico-chimiques des polymères aux applications désirées.

- Appliquer les matériaux polymères en traitement des eaux

• Responsables du matière :

Il s’agit  de perfectionner les connaissances des étudiants dans le domaine de la CFAO. A la fin du semestre, l’étudiant devra acquérir les compétences suivantes :

·   Modélisation des pièces de formes complexes (moules, matrices, …).

·   Simulation du processus d’usinage.

·   Interprétation et vérification du programme d’usinage généré automatiquement.

Durant les séances de TP, l’étudiant devra maîtriser un logiciel de CFAO  pour concevoir des pièces et des assemblages complexes ainsi que pour simuler l’usinage des pièces conçues. Si les moyens existants le permettent, l’étudiant doit passer à l’atelier pour exécuter le programme généré sur une machine outil à commande numérique (MOCN).

La chimie des substances naturelles naturelles vise la connaissance des substances naturelles avec impact sur la vie de tous les jours.

Il sera mis un accent sur leurs origines, les utilisations potentielles et leur synthèse pour éviter de gaspiller ou vandaliser les ressources naturelles.

Le cours est organisé en séances correspondant aux séances en présentiel; il comporte aussi des exercices d'application.

CONJUNCTIONS

( LECTURE)

(by Dr. HEMCHE Hidaya Amina and Dr. HAKEM Hadia)

1. Definition

Conjunctions are one type of linking words. A conjunction is a part of speech that joins or connects two elements together (i.e. words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs).

2. Types of Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions:

 2.1. Coordinating Conjunctions

 Also called coordinators, are the simplest kind of conjunctions and all have fewer than four letters. These are used to join parts of a sentence (items) that are grammatically equal and similar in importance and structure:      

                                                                   +

                                           word                   to                    word     

phrase                to                    phrase         

clause                 to                    clause     

• Word to word:          Most children like [cookies] and [suits].     
• Phrase to phrase:      Do you like camping [at the beach] or [by the lakeside]?         
• Clause to clause:      [The train came late] and [I was tired].

Coordinating conjunctions are: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet and So. Generally, the acronym FANBOYS is used to remember them; based on their initials spell.

N.B.: Coordinators always occur between the items they join, neither at the beginning nor at the end of the sentence.

·         Correct: I like coffee, but I hate tea.

·         Incorrect: But I hate tea, I like coffee.

2.1.1. Punctuation with Coordinating Conjunctions

A-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases or subordinate clauses, there is no need to put a comma before the conjunction.

• Words: Jack and Jill went up the hill.
• Phrases: You can sit next to me or behind Tom.
• Subordinate clauses: The water was cold but I went swimming.

                                   She is kind so she helps.

B-    When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction.

·        I want to become a journalist in the future, so I am specialising in translation from French to English.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well balanced, there is no need to put a comma.

·        She failed so she is sad.

C-   When a coordinating conjunction joins two or more items, this creates a series and a comma is, then, required between the two first elements and optional before the conjunction.

Examples:

·        Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

Or

·         Peter spent his summer holidays studying basic math, writing and reading comprehension.

D-    A comma is also used with but, when expressing contrast.

·        This rule is useful, but difficult to understand.

  2.1.2. Use of coordinating Conjunctions

a. For

The word for is most of the time used as a preposition. However, it also functions; on more rare occasions; as a coordinating conjunction. The coordinator for is used to introduce a reason for the preceding clause.

·         The baby is sleeping for he has been crying all night long.

b. And

As a conjunction, and is used in the following cases:

1-     To show that one action is chronologically sequential to another (i.e.to express a chronological sequence of actions).

·         She sent in her application for the job and is still waiting for an answer.

2-     To show that one action is the result of another.

·         They invested money in the company right at the start and this brought them success.

3-      To show that one idea is in contrast to another (usually, and may be replaced by but in this usage).

·         By the end of the day, we were tired and happy.

·         By the end of the day, we were tired but happy.

4-      To suggest an element of surprise. In this case, and is often replaced by yet;

·         It is a small car, and it is surprisingly spacious.

·         It is a small car, yet it is surprisingly spacious. 

5-     To show that one clause is dependent upon another. Usually in this case, the first clause is an imperative.

·         Miss another class and you will fail.

6-     To give a kind of comment on the first clause.

·         Mark became addicted to drugs- and that was a surprise for no one.

c.  Nor

The conjunction nor is not often met as the other conjunctions, especially when used alone. Nevertheless, nor is usually used in conversation or writing with other negative expressions to express a non- contrasting negative idea.

·         He wasn’t there on Monday, nor on Tuesday for the meeting.

     d.  But

1-      But is used to suggest a contrast that is unexpected to occur in light of the first clause.

·         A terrible accident occurred between two buses, but no one was injured.

2-      But is also used to link two ideas in the meaning of “with the exception of”. In this case, the second word plays the role of subject.

·         All the employees but Mr. Wilson went on a strike.

e.  Or

1-      Or is used to suggest that only one possibility can be realised, excluding one or the other.

·         You must study hard or you will fail.

2-     To introduce a combination of alternatives.

·         Do you prefer meat or fish for dinner?

3-     To suggest a restatement or correction of the first part of the sentence.

·         Jack masters height languages, or so he pretends.

f.  So

1-      As a conjunction, so is used to express the result or consequence of an action.

·         It was still painful so I went to the doctor again.

2-      So can also be used to express sameness or addition.

·         Soto is not the only Olympic athlete of his family, so are his brother, sister and uncle.

3-      Sometimes, so occurs at the beginning of a sentence to act as a summing device or transition. In this case, it is often separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

·         So, the police arrived and intervened rapidly.

g. Yet

The word yet functions as a coordinating conjunction with the meaning of nevertheless or but.

·         He is brilliant, yet he didn’t pass the exam.

2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions

   Subordinating conjunctions; also called subordinators; are found only in     complex sentences and used to join two clauses together: the main (or   independent) clause to the subordinate (or dependent) one.

The idea in the main clause is the most important one while that of the subordinate clause is less important as illustrated below:

      Independent Clause          Subordinating Conjunction        Dependent Clause

    Frank went swimming                  although                       it was raining. 

    2.2.1. Remarks

ü  Notice that the independent clause can stand alone as it carries the main idea of the sentence, whereas the subordinate clause cannot as it depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. Besides, it supplies a time, reason, condition; and so on; for the main clause.

ü  A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause, as it introduces it.

·         The snowman melted       because           the sun came out.

                                                        Subordinator       Subordinate Clause

ü  The subordinate clause can occur after or before the main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

A-     Structure One:  Main Clause   +  Subordinate Clause

·        All is lost unless we act now.

B-     Structure Two:  Subordinate Clause  +  Main Clause

·         After the rain stopped, the dog run into the mud to play.

    2.2.2. Punctuation Note

When the independent clause precedes the dependent one in a sentence, no comma is needed to separate the two clauses. However, if the dependent clause is placed first, a comma is required between the two clauses.

The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are summarised in the table below; some of which may also be used as prepositions.

This online course provides an introduction to machine learning in healthcare. Students will learn how to design, develop, and evaluate machine learning models for various healthcare applications.

This course proposes lectures in educational psychology. Some of which are learning theories, developmental psychology, classroom management, and the psychological variables of language learning such as Intelligence and motivation.

Responsable du Module : Bentifour Rachid 

Site Web: ​​https://sites.google.com/view/bentifourrachid/activités-pédagogiques

_____________________________________________

UEF22 / F222       Fonction de la Variable Complexe
(1h30’ Cours+1h30’ TD/ semaine) ; 45h00’/Semestre
_____________________________________________

Chapitre 1 : Fonctions holomorphes
Chapitre 2 : Fonctions élémentaires
Chapitre 3 : Théorèmes fondamentaux sur les fonctions holomorphes
Chapitre 4 : Théorèmes des résidus et applications au calcul d'intégrales
Chapitre 5 : Applications

Ce cours de Recherche d’Information en Santé s’adresse aux étudiants de Master 1 en Informatique Biomédicale et Hospitalière. Il couvre plusieurs aspects essentiels pour la gestion et l’optimisation de l’accès aux informations médicales :

• Introduction : concepts fondamentaux et enjeux de la recherche d’information en santé.
• Analyse et indexation : structuration des documents médicaux, extraction de mots-clés et techniques d’indexation.
• Modèles de recherche d’information : approche booléenne, vectorielle et probabiliste pour classer et retrouver des données.
• Expansion de requêtes : amélioration de la pertinence des résultats avec des thésaurus médicaux et des modèles sémantiques.
• Applications : recherche sur PubMed, extraction d’antécédents médicaux, gestion des bases de données hospitalières.

Ce cours permet aux étudiants de comprendre et d’implémenter des solutions innovantes pour l’analyse et l’optimisation des systèmes d’information en santé.

Ce cours a pour but de permettre à l'étudiant d'acquérir les notions scientifiques sur le génie enzymatique autant qu’un outil de la biotechnologie et  de maîtriser les concepts d’utilisation d’enzymes à des fin précises en passant par l'identification de ses spécificités, ses caractéristiques, sa production, et les conditions de son utilisation ainsi que les applications dans les domaines agroalimentaire, pharmaceutique et médical.  

La compréhension de ce cours nécessite des pré-requis en biochimie et en enzymologie fondamentale. 

Les roches endogènes se sont formées dans les profondeurs de la Terre . L'objectif  de ce cours est de définir la structure des différentes roches endogènes et comprendre la formation des roches magmatiques et métamorphiques de la lithosphère. On va décrire en détail :

•  Les roches magmatiques : Les roches volcaniques et les roches plutoniques ; la cristallisation des magmas et la classification des roches magmatiques.
•  Les roches métamorphiques : Ses facteurs  ; ses  types ; les grands groupes et la texture.

• La géochronologie relative.
• La géochronologie absolue.

This course aims to guide Master One students at the Section of English in the specialty of Didactics of Foreign Languages at Tlemcen University towards achieving competence and proficiency in research methodology and particularly in education.

In more specific practical aims, the present course aims:

·        To enable Master One students understand what research is.

·        To support them in developing the most appropriate methodology for their research studies; and

·        To raise awareness of crucial aspect of the nature of Knowledge and the value of scientific method

·        To make them familiar with the art of using different research methods and techniques.

·        To  identify and justify the basic components of the research framework

This course introduces the software and libraries used in medical image processing, focusing on practical applications. Students will learn to use C# to develop executable (.exe) and mobile (.apk) applications by leveraging .dll libraries. By the end of this course emphasizes building small applications for use on PCs or smartphones.

Course Content:

Chapter 1: Overview of existing medical image processing software.

Chapter 2: Introduction to the syntax of C#.

Chapter 3: Installation and use of libraries like Aforge and EMGU.

Chapter 4: Basics of Python and implementation with OpenCV.

By the end of the course, participants will gain hands-on experience in creating practical solutions for medical imaging.

Dubbing and Subtitling

DEFINITIONS
EARLY SOUND FILM AND MULTIPLE LANGUAGE VERSIONS
THE DUBBING AND SUBTITLING INDUSTRIES
SUBTITLING VERSUS DUBBING
FURTHER READING

Dubbing and subtitling are two major types of screen translation, the two most used in the global distribution and consumption of filmic media. Since their arrival with the introduction of sound to cinema, both have been seen as compromised methods of translating dialogue because they interfere in different ways with the original text, sound track, or image. Since the early 1930s, most countries have tended to favor either one mode or the other. While there are many forms of language versioning or transfer in current use in the global audiovisual industries, and any one of these might be used in some cases on its own or in combination with others, dubbing and subtitling have remained the most recognizable, as well as the most debated, methods for cinema.

DEFINITIONS

Dubbing is a form of post-synchronized revoicing that involves recording voices that do not belong to the on-screen actors, speaking in a language different from that of the source text and ideally in synch with the film image. But dubbing can also refer more generally to adding or replacing sound effects or spoken lines by the source actors themselves in the language of the film's production, often because of poor sound quality in the original recording or for the deletion of expletives from the theatrical version for release on television. While this latter form of post-synchronized revoicing is present in virtually all modern films, it is often called "looping" to distinguish it from dubbing as language translation. Another form of revoicing is the "voice-over," in which a nonsynchronous voice that does not replace the source text and language is added to the sound track but does not replace the source text and language. Popular in Russia and Poland and used more in television than in filmtranslation, voice-over is a relatively minor mode compared to dubbing and subtitling.

Subtitling, like voice-over, presents the translated and source languages simultaneously, but it transforms speech into writing without altering the source sound track. Subtitling may be either intralingual or interlingual. In the former, the written text that appears over the image is that of the source language. This kind of subtitling, for viewers who are deaf and hard-of-hearing, is often called "captioning," and it is in prevalent use in television broadcasting. Interlingual subtitling translates the source language into the target language (or languages) in the form of one or more lines of synchronized written text. These verbal messages may include not only speech, such as dialogue, commentary, and song lyrics, but also displays, such as written signs and newspaper headlines. Subtitles usually appear at the bottom of the screen, though their placement may vary among language groups. In bilingual subtitling countries such as Belgium, Finland, and Israel, film subtitles are often present in both languages.

The national preferences for subtitled or dubbed films stem from several factors, including historical and political circumstances, traditions and industries, costs, the form to which audiences are accustomed, and the generic and artistic standing of the films themselves. Before these can be considered, it is necessary to address the historical circumstances that gave rise to dubbing and subtitling and to their emergence as the preferred forms of verbal translation in film.

EARLY SOUND FILM AND MULTIPLE LANGUAGE VERSIONS

Silent films presented few problems for language transfer, though they still entailed translation for international audiences. While silent films were well suited to consumption in a variety of cultural contexts, this was due less to their status as a universal language of images than to their intertitles and the flexibility they provided. Intertitles were not simply translated from source to target languages but creatively adapted to cater to diverse national and language groups: the names of characters, settings and plot developments, and other cultural references were altered as necessary in order to make the films internationally understandable for different national audiences. By 1927, the intertitles of Hollywood films were routinely translated into as many as thirty-six languages.

With the sound film, it was no longer possible simply to replace intertitles. Subtitling and dubbing have been in use since 1929, but when the first American sound films reached Europe they did not immediately become the preferred solutions to the new problem of sound film translation. Instead, multilingual productions or multiple language versions (MLVs) experienced a period of ascendency and decline from 1929 to 1933. During this time, American film studios either brought foreign directors, scriptwriters, and actors to Hollywood or set up film production studios in Europe. Warner Bros. was the first American producer to engage in MLV production, with some European producers and all of the major Hollywood studios following suit. Paramount invested the most, building a huge studio in early 1930, at Joinville in the suburbs of Paris, that was soon producing films in as many as fourteen different languages. Films that were shot simultaneously in two or three languages usually had just one director, but for a higher number of MLVs each could have a different director. Polyglot actors might perform in more than one language version, but the norm was different casts for different versions. Sets and costumes were reused, which meant shooting versions in shifts according to a twenty-four-hour schedule. Production time was short, often less than two weeks per feature. At its peak, between March 1930 and March 1931, Joinville turned out an astonishing one hundred features and fifty shorts.

Despite such rationing of production time, MLVs meant an enormous increase in costs, and their standardized plots worked against satisfying the cultural diversity of their target audiences. Their lack of profitability, inability to meet generic requirements across cultures, and the perception that they were purely commercial products led to a precipitous decline in MLVs, with Hollywood ceasing multilingual production entirely in 1933 and Germany and France soon thereafter. Although many established and promising young directors made MLVs, few of their works are considered to be of lasting artistic value. An exception is Josef von Sternberg's Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel, 1930), shot in English and German versions for Ufa (Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft) and Paramount. The Blue Angel was a substantial international hit and features the same actors (Emil Jannings and Marlene Dietrich) voicing their lines in both versions.

While the MLVs are generally considered to be a failed experiment of the early sound period, multilingual versions continued to be made sporadically in Europe. Jean Renoir's Le carrosse d'or (The Golden Coach, 1953), for example, was shot at Cinecittà with a largely Italian cast, most of whom, including the star, Anna Magnani (1908–1973), played and spoke all three languages in separately shot English, Italian, and French versions. Werner Herzog's Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht (Nosferatu the Vampyre, 1979) was double shot, with the same cast performing separate German and English versions.

THE DUBBING AND SUBTITLING INDUSTRIES

The most common explanation for the divide between dubbing and subtitling countries derives from cost: dubbing, the more expensive translation mode, is adopted by the larger, wealthier countries with significant single-language communities, subtitling by the smaller countries whose audiences comprise more restricted markets. While there is some truth to this rationale, cost alone does not dictate national choice: small Central European countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia prefer dubbing, despite its high cost. Historical and political developments, along with tradition, are equally important factors.

In Western Europe, dubbing emerged in the early 1930s as the standard method of language transfer in France, Italy, Germany, and Spain (sometimes referred to as the FIGS group). In France, where the Joinville studio was converted into a dubbing center, the supremacy of dubbing derives from the nation's cultural mission to preserve and protect the French language in the face of foreign (especially American) influence, and the prevalence of French as the lingua franca for a populace accustomed to hearing it in its own films. For the other countries of the FIGS group, culture and political ideology were determining causes. Italy, Germany, and Spain, all of which faced cultural boycotts in the mid-1930s and were ruled by fascist governments, only allowed dubbed versions of foreign films. The dictators of these countries understood how hearing one's own language served to confirm its importance and reinforce a sense of national identity and autonomy. In Italy especially—where most people, including the filmmakers themselves, spoke dialect rather than the official Tuscan—dubbing forged the synthetic unity of a shared national language. As early as 1929, Benito Mussolini's government decreed that all films projected on Italian screens must have an Italian-language sound track regardless of where it was produced. Both Francisco Franco's Spain and Adolf Hitler's Germany established strict quotas regarding imports, almost all of which were dubbed. Through the quickly established and standardized dubbing industries that were built up in these nations, dubbed movies came to be seen as local productions. The highly developed and still active dubbing industries in these countries are thus remnants of their political contexts of the early 1930s, when sound film emerged.

Dubbing is a labor-intensive process. In a sound booth, dubbing actors view film segments repeatedly while voicing their lines from a prepared script. Several recording attempts may be necessary to achieve, as near as possible, the synchronization of translated lines of dialogue or other vocalizations with the lip movements of the original on-screen actors. Films are dubbed well or badly depending on the time and care taken and the resources devoted to the process. Until the 1960s, lip synchrony was held by the dubbing industry as the most important factor for sustaining the illusion of watching and hearing a homogeneous whole. Now, lip synch is considered to be of secondary importance, since research has shown that the viewer cannot discern minor slips and discrepancies in lip movements, and asynchrony is not bothersome to audiences in dubbing countries. Audio synchrony, or using voices that fit the characters on the screen, is important to the overall effect, and studios tend to employ the same dubbing actors for well-known foreign stars. This has led in some cases to voice actors achieving star power within the industry, or even becoming film actors in their own right: for example, Monica Vitti (b. 1931), the star of several Michelangelo Antonioni films in the 1960s, came to the director's notice through a dubbing assignment for his film Il Grido (The Cry, 1957). In the postwar Indian film industry (now commonly referred to as "Bollywood"), the ubiquitous song sequences are sung not by the actors but by professional singers who can become as famous as the screen stars who lip-synch their recordings during shooting.

Even in the dubbing countries there are sectors of the audience who prefer to watch subtitled films. In France these are advertised as "version originale soustitrée" ("original version with subtitles"); in Spain, cinemas increasingly offer both subtitled and dubbed versions of foreign films. Source-language countries—which means English-speaking countries, especially the United States and the United Kingdom—import few films that are not in English and so use these language transfer modes as needed and in a mixed manner. But several non-English-speaking nations, many of which import a high proportion of films, prefer subtitling, including Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the Scandinavian countries.

Subtitling, more cost-effective than dubbing because it dispenses with sound recording and voice actors, is nonetheless complex work. The subtitling industry is not nationalized to the same degree as the dubbing one, since the translators are the key personnel and need not reside in the target country. But a primary issue for subtitling lies in the translation, which entails enormous cuts to the source dialogue—as much as half. While the ideal in subtitling is to translate each utterance in full, the limitation of screen space is a major obstacle. The average viewer's reading speed is 150–180 words per minute, with necessary intervals, which severely limits the duration and hence completeness of the subtitles. The final part of the process involves striking a duplicate photographic print of the master print, while simultaneously exposing it with titles to produce a new print with the titles "burned in." Companies hired to affix the subtitles to film prints face a myriad of possibilities concerning type size and typeface, background and placement, indications for extended sentences and multiple speakers, and the like. As with dubbing, films can be subtitled well or badly.

SUBTITLING VERSUS DUBBING

Many introductory film textbooks discuss a debate regarding subtitled versus dubbed prints of foreign films viewed by Anglo-American film studies students, and all state a preference for subtitling. The case against dubbing includes imperfect synchronicity between lip and audio or voice and body, flatness of performances and acoustics, and alteration or elimination of the original film's sound track and design. The quality of the acting is frequently noted as suffering in dubbed films, as the vocal qualities, tones, and rhythms of specific languages, combined with the gestures and facial expressions that mark national characters and acting styles, become literally lost in translation. While subtitling is acknowledged to have drawbacks as well—it is distracting and impedes concentration on the visuals and often leaves portions of the dialogue untranslated—it is seen to alter the source text the least and to enable the target audience to experience the authentic "foreignness" of the film.

But this position often does not acknowledge the selected acceptance of dubbing in subtitling countries or cases where dubbing makes more sense than subtitling. Foreign films and television programs aimed at children are dubbed in target countries that tend otherwise to subtitle because their viewers have not yet learned to read or cannot read quickly enough for subtitles to be effective. While serious moviegoers demand that art films be subtitled, they rarely complain that foreign films in lower, more commercial genres such as the "spaghetti western," giallo, martial arts, comedies, and anime are usually released in dubbed versions. For Italian cinema, popular or art, the authenticity argument does not hold: almost all Italian films are shot silent and then dubbed after filming has been completed, so there is no original sound track to speak of. The postwar era saw increased levels of co-production among nations, with the casts of co-produced films often coming from different countries and not speaking the same languages; their parts were thus dubbed by voice actors of the country in which the film was shot, and the international nature of what is in fact a polyglot film was erased. Federico Fellini's La strada (The Road, 1954) features two lead performers from the United States speaking English (Anthony Quinn and Richard Basehart) and one from Italy speaking Italian (Giulietta Masina). In terms of screen time and verbal utterances, the two American actors predominate; the Italian lead's lines are negligible. In spite of this, Anglo-American purists invariably judge the dubbed-in-Italian, subtitled-in-English version to be the more authentic even though the lips of two of the three main characters are clearly out of synch with their voices and the film was shot without sound.

The claim that subtitling involves the least interference with the original film is also arguable. Subtitles obstruct the integrity of composition and mise-en-scène by leading the viewers' eyes to the bottom of the frame. They focus audience attention on the translated words and the actors speaking them to the exclusion of peripheral or background dialogue, sound, or characters. They do not provide as full a translation as dubbing, and audiences of subtitled films do not experience the words and the expressions of the performers simultaneously. Subtitling may thus be regarded as undoing the synergy of performance and script, elevating selectively translated dialogue and downgrading the impact and importance of visual expression.

Although neither subtitling nor dubbing is an ideal form of audiovisual translation, recent technological developments have widened their application and reception. The number of individual sound tracks used in feature film sound design has increased (twenty-four tracks or more are now commonplace), as has the number of sound tracks used in the dubbing process. When each speaking character has a separate voice track in the film's original recording, dubbing only for language is possible, leaving the rest of the original aural expression of the film intact. For subtitling, laser processing has enabled the introduction of larger letters, outlined words, broader color ranges, and translucent background bands to increase legibility. But it is digitalization that has brought the most dramatic changes. Analyzing and resynthesizing the voices of dubbing actors make it possible for intonation, tone, and timbre to be adjusted to match those of the source actors almost identically. Asynchrony between lip movements and translated revoicings can also be corrected digitally to achieve lip synchrony, which is especially important in close-ups. The introduction of "soft titles," which are similar to the simultaneous translation one may experience with opera, has been enabled by CD-ROM technology and has allowed for high-quality subtitling for films that have no existing subtitled prints, providing a cheaper and more easily transportable solution than the expensive process of burning subtitles onto a newly struck print.

Finally, the introduction of Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) and the Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) has produced increasing user choice and demand for television and film in other languages. Digital TV (DVB) enables transmission of a number of signals and thus live or simultaneous subtitling—a particularly important development for those countries accustomed to reading subtitles, as it means new access to foreign satellite channels. DVDs have become a crucial mode of film consumption. Their viewers can choose between dubbed or subtitled streams in a range of languages—up to four dubbing tracks and thirty-two subtitled tracks. Translations or subtitles are also required for the extra features frequently found on DVDs, such as trailers, behind-the-scenes documentaries, and biographical information on key cast members. While the subtitling versus dubbing debate is unlikely to ever be resolved, digital technologies have provided new opportunities for both modes of audiovisual translation.

SEE ALSO Dialogue;Sound;Technology

FURTHER READING

Betz, Mark. "The Name above the (Sub)Title: Internationalism, Coproduction, and Polyglot European Art Cinema." Camera Obscura 46 (2001): 1–44.

Danan, Martine. "Dubbing as an Expression of Nationalism." Meta: Journal des Traducteurs/Translator's Journal 36, no. 4 (1991): 606–614.

Egoyan, Atom, and Ian Balfour, eds. Subtitles: On the Foreignness of Film. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004.

Ivarsson, Jan, and Mary Carroll. Subtitling. Simrishamn, Sweden: TransEdit, 1998.

Vincendeau, Ginette. "Hollywood Babel: The Coming of Sound and the Multiple-Language Version." Screen 29, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 24–39.

Whitman-Linsen, Candance. Through the Dubbing Glass: The Synchronization of American Motion Pictures into German, French, and Spanish. New York: Peter Lang, 1992.

Ce cours s'adresse principalement à mes étudiants de télécommunication, mais aussi à tout les étudiants de la faculté de Technologie.

Le but de ce cours est d'initier les apprenants aux méthodes algorithmiques et numériques de fond mathématique et destinées à des applications diverses en ingénierie. 

En français

Séminaire de master 1 du deuxième semestre.

C'est un cours qui va servir aux étudiants de littérature et de civilisation dans leur approche de l'analyse des romans et  récits littéraires; des notions théoriques sont mises  en application pour leur permettre de s’imprégner des études narratologiques et analytiques, en premier lieu pour leur propre apprentissage et en second lieu, en prévision de leur travail de mémoire, ce qui leur permettra une réelle mise en pratique des outils d'analyse littéraire.

En español

Seminario de máster 1 segundo semestre

Son clases que van a servir a los estudiantes de literatura y civilización en su aproximación al análisis de novelas y relatos literarios; unas nociones teóricas están aplicadas para permitirles impregnarse de estudios narratológicos y analíticos,  primero para su propio aprendizaje y luego, en previsión del trabajo de fines de estudios, lo que les dará una real oportunidad de poner en práctica las herramientas de análisis literario.   

Using the positive functionalities of micro-organisms is now emerging as a possible alternative to meet the major challenges of producing foodstuffs in sustainable systems, while meeting demanding nutritional and health requirements.

Their processing skills (traditional ferments), nutritional benefits (probiotics) and biopreservation (protective flora) make it possible to provide alternative solutions to certain processes.

In addition, recent advances in the description and functionalities of microbial ecosystems, whether environmental, dietary or intestinal, have highlighted the beneficial role played by certain components of these communities.

Industrial Microbiology uses microorganisms of interest exploited in manufacturing, transformation or degradation processes for industrial purposes. Applications range from the production of biomolecules for the chemical and energy industries to the transformation of raw materials into fermented foods. Environmental biotechnologies can also be associated with this by exploiting the biotransformation capacities of microbial consortia in industrial processes.

L'Optoélectronique est l'étude des composants qui interagissent avec de la lumière. Elle a des portées importantes en particulier en informatique en électronique médical et en télécommunications.

Les roches endogènes se sont formées dans les profondeurs de la Terre ce cours vise a définir et comprendre  la structure des différentes roches endogènes et la formation des roches magmatiques et métamorphiques de la lithosphère.          

l'objectif de ce cours est de décrire :

• Les roches magmatiques : Les roches volcanique ; les roches plutoniques ;la cristallisation de magma et la classification des roches magmatiques.
• Les roches métamorphiques : Ses facteur et types , les grands groupes de roches métamorphiques  et ses textures .